* -^^v yl"/ '^'■■^/ ^t^:.^ .^'^^.A: THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. VOLUME THE NINETEENTH. PRACTICE WITH SCIKNCE. LIBRARY WEW YORK tJOTANIC^* LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1858. These exi'icuiments, it is tuue, are kot easy; still thev are in the tower op every thinking husbandman. he who accomplishes liut one, of however limited application, and takes care to report it faithfully, advances the science, and, consequently, the practice of agriculture, and acquires thereby a right to the gratitude of his fellows, and of those who come after. to make many such is beyond the power of most individuals, and cannot be expected. the first care of all societies formed for the improvement op our science should be to prepare the forms of such experiments, and to distribute the execution of these among their members. Von Thaer, PritJcipUs of Agriculture. l/cmlun : rriiited by William Ci.owks :iik! .Sons, Stamford Slicct, and Charing Cross. CONTENTS OF VOL. XIX. Statistics : — page Meteorology, for the six months ending June 30, 1S5S .. .. ii PubHc Hedth ditto ditto vi Price of Provisions ditto ditto vi Weelcly Average of \Yh cat viii Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31 x Public Health ditto ditto xiv Price of Provisions ditto ditto xv ARTICLE PAGE I. — Tlie Agriculture of Shropshire. By Henry Tanner. Prize Keport 1 II. — The' Potato: its Culture, Production, and Disease. By J. Lang, M.D. Prize Essay 65 III, — Observations on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Mam- mary Gland of the Cow, with the Causes influencing the amount of its Secretion. By James Peart Simonds, Pro- fessor of Cattle Pathology at the Poyal Veterinary College .. 81 IV. — On the Transformation of ^Egilops into Wheat. By Pro- fessor Henfrey ■ 103 V. — Farm Accounts. By John Coleman, Professor of Agricul- ture, Eoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester .. -. .. 122 VI.— On the Management of Breeding Cattle. By Edward Bowly. Prize Essay ' 143 VII. — Experiments upon Swedes, Avith Eemarks on the Manures employed. By Augustus Voelcker 153 VIII. — Notes on the Wealden Clay of Sussex and on its Cultivation. BySidayHawes 182 ' IX. — Observations on the recently-introduced Manufactured Foods for Agricultural Stock. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S 199 X.— Manuring Grass Lands. By J. Dixon. Prize Essay.. .. 204 XL— On the Mammug of Grass Land. By the Rev. W. Pt. Bowditch ^ 219 XII. — On laying down Land to Grass, and its subsequent manage- ment. By H. S. Thompson .. .. 250 XIII. — Eecent Improvements in Norfolk Farming. By Clare Sewell Read ■ 265 XIV. — Report on the Exhibition and Trial of Implements and Machinery at the Chester Meeting. By Sir A. K. Mac- donald, Bart., Senior Steward 311 XV. — Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Chester, By Robert Smith 352 XVI. — Report on the Exhibition of Cheese at Chester, in July, 1858. By Henry AYhite, Steward of Cheese at the Chester Meeting 400 ^12' XVII. — On the Composition and Xutritive Value of Cotton-Cake. m By Augustus Voelcker 420 XVIII.' — Directions for Working Portable Steam-Engines, and keeping them in Proper Order. By Messrs. Ransome and Sims .. 430 XIX. — On the Cost of Horse-power. By J. C. Morton 437 .; XX.— On the Structure of Roots. By Professor Henfrey, F.R.S.,&c. 467 r CONTENTS. ARTICLE PAGE XXI. — Horse Labour in France. By F. E. de laTrehonnais .. 489 XXII. — Statistics of Live Stock for Consumption in tlie Metropolis. By Kobert Herbert 496 XXIII. — An Essay on the Management of a Herd of Breeding Cattle, witli especial reference to tlie kind of Diet, the Treatment and Condition best calculated to ensure regular Fecundity and successful Gestation, and the Causes -which operate adversely in particular Seasons. By William Wright ., 500 XXIY. — On Liquid Manure. By Augustus Voelcker 519 XXV. — Report of Experiments with different Manures on Per- manent Meadow Land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.C.S 552 XXVI. — Mode of Cultivation and kind of Manure employed for the Turnips' and Carrots which received Prizes at the Birming- ham Show, Dec. 1858 574 APPENDIX. PAGE List of Oflficers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1858-9 .. i Memoranda of Meetings, Privileges, Payment of Subscription, &c. .. ii Report of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22, 1858 .. .. iii Half-yearly Balance-sheet, ending December 31, 1857 vi Schedule of Prizes for Essays and Reports vii Members' Privileges of Chemical Analysis xi Members' Veterinary Privileges xii List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1858-9 .. xiii Memoranda of ]\Ieetings, Privileges, Payment of Subscription, &c. .. xiv Report of the Council to the General Meeting, Dec. 10, 1858 .. .. xv Half-j'early Balance-sheet, ending June 30, 1858 .. xix List of Stewards of the Yard, Honorary Director, Judges, &c., at the Chester Meeting xx Prize- Awards of the Judges of Live-Stock : Chester Meeting . . . . xxi Special Prizes given by the Chester Local Committee xxx Commendations of the Judges of Live-Stock : Chester Meeting .. .. xxxv Prize-Awards of tlie Judges of Implements : Chester Meeting .. .. xlv Commendations of the Judges of Implements : ChesterMeeting . . . . xlvii Prize-Awards of the Judges of Cheese : ChesterMeeting xlviii Commendations of tlie Judges of Cheese : ChesterMeeting xlix DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and place it at the enl of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics, &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume : the lettering at the back to include a statement of the year as well as the volume ; the first volume belonging to 1S39-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter retained. *:^* In hiniling the Volume omit the duplicate of the Prizes for Assays, aiid Memha-&' Chemical and Veterinary Privileges (b*, pp. vii-xii) given in this Part. CONTENTS OF PART I., VOL. XIX. Statistics : — page Meteorology, for the six months ending June 30, 1858 .. .. ii Public Health ditto ditto vi Price of Provisions ditto ditto vi Weekly Average of Wheat viii ARTICLE PAGE I. — The Agriculture of Shropshire. By Henry Tanner. Prize Report 1 II. — The Potato : its Culture, Production, and Disease. By J. Lang, M.D. Prize Essay 65 III. — Observations on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Mam- mary Gland of the Cow, with the Causes influencing the amount of its Secretion. By James Beart Simonds, Pro- fessor of Cattle Pathology at the Pioyal Veterinary College .. 81 IV. — On the Transformation of ^Egilops into Wheat. By Pro- fessor Henfrey 103 V. — Farm Accounts. By John Coleman, Professor of Agricul- ture, Eoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester .. r.. .. 122 VI. — On the Management of Breeding Cattle. By Edward Bowly. Prize Essay 143 VII. — Experiments upon Swedes, with Eemarks on the Manures employed. By Augustus Voelcker 153 VIII. — Notes on the Wealden Clay of Sussex and on its Cultivation. BySidayHawes 182 IX. — Observations on the recently-introduced Manufactured Foods for Agricultural Stock. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S 199 X. — Manuring Grass Lands. By J. Dixon. Prize Essay . . . . 204 XL— On the Manuring of Grass Land. By the Rev. AV. R. Bowditch 219 XII. — On laying down Land to Grass, and its subsequent manage- ment. By H. S. Thompson 250 APPENDIX. List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1858-9 .. i Memoranda of Meetings, Privileges, Payment of Subscription, &c. .. ii Report of the Council to the General Meciting, May 22, 1858 .. .. iii Half-yearly Balance-sheet, ending December 31, 1857 vi Schedule of Prizes for Essays and Iteports vii Members' Privileges of Chemical Analysis xi Members' Veterinary Privileges xii DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman nmneral folios, and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics, &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beyinning of the Volume : the lettering at the bacli to include a statement of the year as well as the volume ; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter retained. STATISTICS THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PEICE OF PROVISIONS, &c., &c., FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING JUNE 30, 1858. Extracted from the Quarterly Returns of the Jlegcstrar General. VOL. XIX. ( n ) ON THE METEOEOLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING MARCH 31st, 1858. By JAMES G L A I S H E E, Esq., F.E.S., 6EC. OF THE BSITISH METEOBOLOOICAL SOCIETT. January. — Till the 7tli the air was cold, being 3°-2 below the average ; then warm until the 20th, the average excess being 4°'7 ; again cold till the 27th, the deficiency being daily 4°-2 from the average ; and from the 28th to the end of the month warm, being 4° -7 in excess. The mean temperature of the month differed little from the average. February was cold nearly throughout, excepting on the 3rd, 4th, Tith, Gth, and 13th, when the temperature was somewhat in excess. The mean temperature of the month was nearly 4° below the average. March till the 12th was cold, the daily deficiency being 8° ; from the 13th to the end it was warm, the temperature averaging .5" "3 in excess. This month was nearly of its average temperature. Tlie greatest differences in the temperature of the air occun-edin the Midland counties. The mean degree of humidity, and the mean temperature of the dew-point, were less than the average value in each month, and in all cases to greater amounts than the deficiency of temj)erature : therefore the air was less humid than usual. The reading of the Barometer was nearly half an inch in excess of the average in the month of January ; in Febraary slightly above the average ; and in March a little in defect. The fall of rain in January and March was deficient, and in February in excess of the average ; it was nearlj- half an inch in defect on the quarter. During the three months there was almost a total absence of thunder and lightning. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the quarter ending Febniary, constituting the three winter months, was 39"^, being 1°'3 above the average of 87 years. ( ni ) S = |B t^ to ^ =1 t.' _ r> ^ r< rn S = ^ J O M M 5 r £ '< "g j; tD O O O b 5l ^-r O ^ C^ vj^ !s ^J^ i o _^ o 1 1 1 1 K^ i^ ^ rA ^ S -t a^ O -t. to ' ■§>■ S o 3 a cS n o <^ ■£. '^ r. ^. r> a o o 9, ~ ~ r< r> O b ri L^ 5: b ^ ;3 S to S o 3 ►3;S ^ MM — ^ M O O -^ ^ M Tj- VJ^ C3 > . 2 ?^ !S O "-O a tn S R =3 .^^ S 11 _c o o" o "l 1 1 O 1 H • c ■ 1 to o ^^ V2 'i- -t cr< '^ - tJ- CN w OO w 3 _• OvO O OO : « :-• S a s i^ . ^ ° OO* ^r^ "-f C> " x> a ^5 ^s° ^ COOT 1 IIP + + + O + £ CTv > 3 p— 1 C3 '^ i S M (^ a M O >-* r^ 1 ti-, J COM \0 ":J- D ^ < 3 r» n r^ l-H j a d b b b 1 + 1 3 b 1 r- '*- '3 55" vO '''^ r^ om ;^ M 1 1 1 7 ^ 3 o a d b M b i V2 Ch < ^ « c* OO -+0 ON ^; So CO •3 ''> b "'^ r, ^ £ o r^ o s rA fv^ ^/^ rv^ o o u: + + + II o5- So ^ O a) t; rl O EC O t- o • c; tcs "^1 C3 s s •*n O *-< 00 f 1 1 °-H Tj- O 1 1 1 1 ^ \0 <^ ^r\ \T\ Kr\ Kr\ H c a o lo C^ r^\ t-^ 00 fl 0^ O -+ OO S "^ - Tj-VD I--", w*, ;3 ci OU rrii • 1 C to 3 ^ -too M ^ *^ 1 • !S ?^ ^ • • • • So M fO ro «-^ r^ 1 ^1 + + 1 + O D b ■i; tog °b ^ b o H tfn a M M xr\ — OO 1^ c^ sa cj o 1 1 1 1 S .- O CN O cr> C < o { "^ ro (s r< -5 -^ .i^ i s + ( IV ) ON THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING JUNE 30th, 1858. By JAMES G L A I S H E E, Esq., F.E.S., SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOKOLOGICAL SOCIETY. April. — Till the 14th the air Avas cold, being 4o-2 below the average; from the 15th to the 26th it was warm, the average excess being 5°"9 ; cold again to the end, 1°*0 below the average. The mean temperature of the month was nearly of its average value. May was cold till the 15th, being 4^-1 below the average ; warm till the 24th, averaging 10'2 in excess; from the 25th to the 28th cold, being 2^-4 below the average ; then hot till the end, being 7°-G in excess. The mean temperature of the month was about 1° lower than the average. June Avas hot throughout, the average excess being above CP. The mean temjierature of this month has been but once exceeded since the 3'ear 1771, a period of 87 j^ears ; viz. in the year 1846, when it was G5'=>'3. On the 16th of June, 1858, the temperature near the sea rose as high as 88°, and between the latitudes 51° and 52^ reached 95°. The mean temperature of this day at Greenwich was 76°-9 — the highest mean temperature in this month on record. The mean temperature of the dew-point was below its average in April and May, and in June 3° above it. June was less humid than tisTial, the average excess of air-temj^erature being greater than that of dew-point temperature. The mean reading of the barometer was in defect in May, and above the average in April and June ; the mean for June being the highest during the last 1 7 j'ears. The fall of rain was in excess in April and May, and deficient in June ; it was about the average for the quarter. Thunderstorms were very prevalent in June, some of them being exceedingly violent ; particularly one on the 10th in the noiih-west l^arts of iJorsetshire ; and one on the 1 6th at Eose Hill, near Oxford, which was preceded by a violent hurricane ; the lightning flashed 14 times in about 30 seconds, and the thunder was incessant. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the quarter ending Ma}^, constituting the three s]"»ring months, was 46°'4, being exactly of the average value. ( V ) g o ™ w s^ p « i . • 2 >> mO o b 1 1 + o b •ll «!> (N o o 't o to VA <= c § CD S« '^ ■;}■ ^ vr, S ».r\ 1' _^. r^ r> vD ^J^ o O 00 O S o > 3 3 & (S rA '^t- IN-l a j; •a cj bp ^ oo *-A »^ |«> 6 S "rt iS w r< rv-i ^ " 1 =- fl :,; ■:}- wrs »-r, »J^ s C3 II M -^OO a ^ i Ml « . -■ M -^ O Si >-( fS /k '* S 3 > "3 C O O O 1 "l + O 4- H o bo 5 ■a ii o u a <1 'ji £ °' rA a «o 2 O t^ r« c .= IN ri ^ S • • • ° 1?; oo O O a oo 125 -tJ ^ o rS '~' ^ M Siv g o ^ 55- trvO r< rt- ,_, .^ to i ° M b ^ ri 1 ^S^ -^ c + + + -h — r^ CN TA ? oo '5 1 c o O o O a's ,i 1 C3 o * * * vD ro r^ M " O " "^ ° a ''• §b ^ S M (S CI r< ii tog c b b b '5 Ph as- " + + 1 ^ + go ^• • w O ^• ^er ° w M r^ 1 1 + b 1 . ■5^co n 3 • 'S 55-- a ■" r« M w M "^ PL, < ^ (M ;2 t^\0 t^ n^ o o ' ' * "•< £ J-J . r< O ^ H " OO 1^ •^ ^J^ C to g 1+ ' •w P^ rn "^ vn ■^ o o te'l^ 1 O 1=2 o S-^ t-> S O M 3 O (M '^ OO Tj- M l~^ > " si:: bo S ° b « V 1 1 + "-la 6 a;\-i oo i-^ r-- ft a c 5 S" O + S VA 1 go„- ro tr\ r^ lA > c r-- i^oo t^ O (U ^ '^ »-r> M rA r^ rt o * ' ' • ' e O O >- o " -r\ r~^ f^ ■^ u^vO >-P> 1 1 r^ r^o '" : : : : 1 1 : : : : 00 s a 00 /^ •"H >^s Oi 00 ^ •E ^S o T-t o tJ " wS r=q f^ s r^ ( VI ) STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 1st Quarter. — 171,001 birtlis and 125,902 deaths were registered in the first ninety days of the year ; and the natural increase of population in that period was therefore 45,099, or 501 daily. The natural increase in the winter quarter of 1857 was 687 daily. The falling o& in the increase of population is referable to the exces- sively high rate of mortality during the past winter ; for the births exceeded by 7 daily the births in the winter of 1857. The annual rate of mortality for the three months was 2-627 per cent., or '155 in excess of the average of the winter quarters of the 10 preceding years, which was 2*472 per cent. 27id Quarter. — 169,170 births and 107,193 deaths were registered in the quarter ending on June 30 ; and the natural increase of the population of England and Wales was 61,977 in 91 days, or 681 daily. The probable natural increase of the population of the United Kingdom was 1021 daily. In the preceding winter quarter it was estimated at 750. The annual rate of mortality for the three months was 2-206 per cent., or -019 below the average of the spring quarters of the 10 preceding years. THE PEICE OF PKOVISIONS. 1st Quarter. — The average price of wheat in the first three months of 1850, 1857, and 1858 was respectively 72s. Ad., bQs. lOcZ., and 46s. M. a quarter. The fall of price since 1856 has been 36 per cent., and since 1857 18 per cent. Beef and mutton by the carcase at Newgate and Leadenhall markets were cheaper in the winter quarter of 1858 than in that of 1857. The price of beef fell from bid. to h\d. a pound, of mutton from OicZ. to 5|c/. a pound. Beef was at the same price, mutton dearer, than in the first three months of 1856. Potatoes attained an exorbitant price, York Eegents sell- ing at the waterside market, Southwark, at 152s. Qd. per ton, 39 per cent, higher than in 1857, and 77 per cent, higher than in 1856. 2nd Quarter. — The price of wheat has been for the three months of 1856, 1857, and 1858, 68s. M., 56s. M., and 44s. Id. per quarter; of beef for the same periods bid., b^L, b\d. ; mutton b^d., bid., and b^d. a pound. AVhile the price of animal food thus declined, and that of wheat fell 36 per cent., the price of potatoes (York Eegents) rose more than 100 per cent., viz. from 80s. and 128s., to 163s. a ton, at the waterside market, Southwark. ( VII ) THE PEICE OF PEOVISIONS. The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes ; also the average Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weeklj'-, in each of the Nine Quarters ending June 30th, 1858. Average Price of Consols (for Money). Average Price of Wlieat per (Quarter in England and ■WTieat sold in the 290 Cities and Towns in England and Wales making Returns.* ^\'^leat and Wheat Flour entered for Home Consumption at Chief Ports of Great Britain.* Average ftices of Quarters ending Meat per lb. at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets (by the Carcase). Potatoes (York Regents) per Ton at Waterside Wales. Average number of Quarters weekly. Beef. Mutton. Southwark. 1856 June 30 Sept. 30 Dec. 31 1857 Mar. 31 June 30 Sept. 30 Dec. 31 1858 Mar. 31 June 30 £. 95 i 95 925 931 93i 9o| 89J 96^ 97^ s. d. 68 8 72 3 63 4 56 10 56 9 59 " 52 46 5 44 I 104,952 78,208 112,909 102,433 107,850 92,156 101,025 99,604 92,955 63,093 117,807 103,328 51,310 42,173 55,384 95,587 64,652 86,551 4irf.-6irf. Mean ^^d. 4id.—e^d. Mean 5^0?. 3|rf.-6|rf. Mean ^^d. 4id.-6id. Mean 5Jd. 4id.~Hd. Mean 5|rf. 4jOCT--l-oo>/\*-*o|oa -& >^K Ks s; s>5.s.???^?)=| , TTT l.o ^ • I' a 1 ^ ..............41.,- ;-^ 7^ s « > *A . <» ^ T.-' C4 tD ( > 0;i W o :* t-l O Ja:±_^ -^ -L z !-■ T- a % r^ '^ p. _ . .« > w .U- '■■"'"' 1 o ( > o 2 '■<'. „ B ■■ -f . r^ < ^.-■"' O « -(»■ &H ,^' ' <1 >. o' W •^ 4',, 1 *' "^■•■•i 1 i o ^ *■.. .1 o ■--U.,.. 1 r.'j o '~* <•. M 5' '• ■ .1 O 1^ -3^ 0, c;; w 1 t t^ < ~ >< •< .<>■ ••Ll_ _ M a "^ -f ^ T ■p *-i 1 ■I ( D~ in CO I— 1 ft 9 'o f^ .4 ,. -i- b -■. 0^ -0 r^u-co-^ v,,.o i, 5 So '':>3 >§ ?, "S, ^ '5^'S,KK c 'S'Sn ss !S'.p?,3; sk;^ ...H STATISTICS THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF PROVISIONS, &c., &c., FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1858. Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Returns of the Eeyiatrar- General. ( X ) ON THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMBER 30tii, 1858. By JAMES GLAISHEE, Esq., F.E.S., SEC. OF THE nUITISH METEOKOLOGICAL SOCIETY. July. — Till the 10th the air was cold, being 5°-7 below the average temperature ; it became warm until the 25th, the mean excess being 2°'5 ; from the 25th till the end of the month cold, the average deficiency being 2°-5. The mean temperature of the month was about 1° below the average. August was warm till the 24:th, being 2° above the average ; then till the end of the month cold, the average deficiency being 2°-5. The mean temperature was 1°'5 above the average of the preceding 87 years. September was warm throughout, being 4° in excess of the average. The mean temperature of the month has been but four times exceeded during the last 87 years, viz. in the years 1779, 1795, 1815, and 1818, Avhen the mean temperatuie was respectively 60°-7, 60°-8, 62°-3, and 60°-7. The mean temperature of the dew-point was below its average in July and August, and above in September. The mean degree of himiidity was in defect in each month of the quarter. The mean reading of the Barometer was in defect in July, and in excess of the average in August and September ; it was slightly in excess for the quarter. The fall of rain was a little above the average in July, one inch below in August, and li inch below in September; for the quarter there was a deficiency of about half an inch. Thunderstorms were fi-equent during the quarter. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the quarter ending September, constituting the three summer months, was 62°-5, being 2^*5 above the average of 87 years. ( XI ) ^ "o <§ tig fc o . to o o o 1 1 + b 1 i ghest ailing at ight. O O PA O r^ a> u^ VA ^A u-l to PA . K« ^ a o *3 o ■^ to ,jj 1 ^ ^ § p: ^ "^ to O r< CO C\ (N PA PA PA rA 1-^ PA S o » S"3j2 t~- t-C ITS ■ M > ^. Cr< G^ ■^ a n st- lag Ob-' C o o o o Lh •=2 O! atic For Vapou 1 1 + + o 4 C! „• 1 to ' ■'3 z |o5 "§"■5 ri n o !^ o ^ ^ ;3 O wax: tH o a S ■" _• oo oo O .S PA i-A -sh 0^ rA « t4 1 S|.- O O O a o f^ ^.g" S O ./i to liis \r> r> rA OO ! 3c . 1 5§- + + 1 M as-*" s t-~ 1 O s 1 O ^J^ PA '^ £"3:= 1 r> ir> D o < 3 Or. TAOO r< r< -^ r» . 'i sis c' b b " + 1 i cc b ( c So « 5§- 1 1 + b 1 o 3 d M M O i » fw 1 1 < c >J^ r^ ^ n C , s's^ S S w w rA lA VA ITS lA -^ tb rl i~i PA o o - .= o G J5- a*3.^ O 1, b OO - I-^ M t>- " ' r; d Mg ^3 1 S O ON ^ o 2 i p C3 " 1 1 + o 1 1 'i i ^ to U-^ U^ tTN tA H^ 1 fi3 E o^ w^ O r^ ^ r^ k-no PA P "U b 1— M r* W •S tpg o o o o ^ 0M-^O O ^D 5=1 O) _ G e3 '^ .^ r^ u-\ vn »-r\ to -2^ 1 -a § 1 + + + C o vi lag o^"^ o «« '^ VC ^A n- Om O -A M o g • t^OO CO oo ^ 1 ++ + S O (^ C^ -A 1 2 °b ^ b o c c3 r» o OO PA S so \0 so VO S r^ r^ r^ I-^ ( CD • t^ a , S 0) -^ bD-S 1-5 <1 c/2 CD "si ( XII ) ox THE METEOEOLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING DECEAIBER 3 1st, 1858. By JAMES G L A I S H E E, Esq., F.E.S., SEC. OF TnE EniTISH METEOKOIOGICAL EOCIETT. October till the 4t]i was warm, lieing 3i° above tlie average ; cold till the 12th, being 2f° deficient ; from the 13th to the 28th warm, being 3i° in excess ; and then till the end of the month cold, the mean daily deficiency being o^o. The mean temperature of the month was 50^*8, being 1^° above the average. November was very cold till the 24th, being 6° below the average, and then became warm for the remainder of the month, the average excess lieing 5J^. The mean temperature of the month was 39°-0, being 4^° below the average of the last 17 years. The mean tem- perature of this month has been lower on 1 2 occasions only during the last 87 years. The mean temperature of the 23rd and 24th at Greenwich was lower than that of any two consecutive days in November during the last 45 years. December was warm till the oth, being 3J^ in excess ; cold till the 17th, averaging 3i° in defect; and for the remainder of the month warm, the average excess being 5i°. The mean temperature for the month was ^'^ above the average of the previous 1 7 years. The mean temperatiu-e of the dew-point was above its average in October and December, and below in November. The mean degree of humidity exceeded its average in December, but was deficient in October and November. The fall of rain was deficient in each month, and the total deficiency for the quarter amounted to 4-.5 inches. The annual fall for the last four years has shown a yearly decrease ; in 1855 the amoimt was 23-5 inches ; in 185G, 21-5 inches ; in 1857, 21*4 inches ; and in 1858, 17'2 inches ; and the latter amount is the lowest since 1840, when it was 16-4 inches. The mean pressure of the atmosphere was considerably above the average in October, and somewhat below in November and December. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the quarter ending November, constituting the tlirec autumnal months, was 500-2, being O^'O above the average of 87 years. ( XIII ) 3 O O JS to o So 3 Diff. from average of 17 years. _ « w^ O ti "o b b + 1 1 b 1 ) ' 1 "S to Si:a ^3 •as «.s? (S O u^ ^ ^ -"l- "axi ^jjO -to j> 5 1 i .a H o b: "^ "S to -21 i^ o o o ° k ^ V n M n £ Ehistic Force of Vapour. S = [O 1 . O U-, O a O O O + 1 1 p^ j> r^ „• ^ O M o + o •a Cm o 1 1 ¥ 1? — « -3 S 3 •<■ O M c 3 ^ ' r^O OO o 3 1 s & c 3 K >. '5 Q 1 lag 4-+ 1 b 4- M ^.2 lot 0, O »~^ O .•3 O O C 2 O w^ i^ a Hi n M r> O - 1 1 1 5 ^ X 1 — • a I'll ^ 2 i» ° b ^b 4- 1 4- T ! Ph o a - M b M 3 • rj* r^ rA 0^ ON m 1 '•3 ■S"3 ^1 l|3 5 §"' 1, + + 1 + _3 5 c S o § C to 3 to"! "" c 5" ^ o '-to + 1 4- ' it " a* &^S9^ 00 -1- ^ cj S ^ <^ rA 1 O si o l|§ Q 5 "' >^ O \£> =' r ? ° + 1 1 Eo oi ° ■- ^b 4- 1 4- oo I b 1 5 ^0 " PA ur\ t^ £-• 00 r^ t-^ r» M M 00 4; tog ° M « « 4- 1 4- M r, « T 7 + 1 s oo o o Kr^ iv~, ^ oo 1 S CO 00 00 00 CO m 00 ■j5 o r3 i j= ^ C 1 o5 t-i o !> a rt ( XIV ) STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH. Is^ Quarter, — 157,449 births and 98,260 deaths were registered ; consequently the natural increase of the population in the 92 days was 59,189, or 643 daily in England. The probable natural increase of population in the United Kingdom was 964 daily. The mortality was at the rate of 1-994 per cent, annually, or -146 below the average. The average rate of the season exceeds 21 ; the actual rate of this quarter was less than 20 in 1000. The reduced mor- tality is, no doubt, to some extent due to sanitary^ improvements. During the summer the annual rate of mortality in the population of the country, of villages and small towns, was at the rate of 17 in 1000, the aveiage rate being 18 ; and in the same time the town population died off at the annual rate of 24 in 1000, the average being 26. If the mortality had been at the standard rate, deduced from sixty-three of the least unhealthy districts, the deaths would have amounted to 73,088 instead of 98,260 ; conseqviently the deaths in excess of the comparatively healthy average, or the unnatural deaths, amounted to 25,172 ; of which 20,146 happened in the large towns, and 5026 in the small towns and villages. Diphtheria, often called " throat disease," and typhoid fever have been prevalent in some districts. 2iid Quarter. — 158,007 births and 118,663 deaths were registered, so that the natural increase of the population in England was 39,344, or 428 souls daily. The probable natural increase of population of the United Kingdom was 642 daily. The mortality was at the annual rate of 2-402 per cent., or rather more than 24 in 1000. The mortality of the quarter in town districts was at the rate of 28 in 1000 living; in country districts at the rate of 21 in 1000 living. Upon taking the four quarters, of which the returns are now com- plete, the result is that the deaths of 450,018 persons were regis- tered in the year 1858, and the annual mortality was at the rate of 23 in 1000 ; in town districts the annual rate was 25 or more ; in country districts 21 in 1000 died. At the rates of comparatively healthy districts, the deaths in the j-ear should not have exceeded 321,009; the actual deaths .amounted to 450,018. This excess of 129,009 deaths is due chiefly to the fatal neglect of the sanitary ar- rangements which are requii-ed in every district, and are indis- pensable in densely-peopled cities. These 129,009 deaths may be called unnatural deaths, of which about 83,431 happened in the largo town districts, and 45,578 in the rest of the kingdom. This is a sad reckoning; but it is an under-statement of the facts. ( XV ) THE PEICE OF PEOVISIONS. 1st Quarter. — The price of wlieat fell progressively from 72s. del. a quarter, in the months of July, August, and Sej^tember, 1856, to 59s. llfZ. in 1857, and to 44s. 7d. on an average in the corresponding three months of 1858 ; the decrease of price being thus 38 per cent. The price of beef by the carcase ot Lcadenhall and Newgate Markets fell in the two years from o^Ci. to OjJ. a pound ; the price of mutton from 6d. to od^., or 8 per cent. Potatoes (York Eegents) were sold at the waterside market, Southwark, at 78s. a ton ; or 26 per cent, less than the price of the same season in the previous year. 30 lbs. were sold in 1858 for a shilling; in 1857 only 21 lbs. The price of potatoes was the same as in the corresponding quarter of 1856. 2nd Quarter. — The prices of wheat continued to fall in the year 1858. AVheat was sold at 41s. 9d. a quarter on an average during the last thirteen weeks of the year ; and the prices in the thirteen corresponding weeks of 1856 and 1857 were 63s. -id., and 52s. The fall was 34 per cent, in two years. Beef by the carcase was 5-|f7., 5^., and 5ff7. per pound in the same seasons at Leaden- hall and Newgate Markets ; mutton 5fc/., oft?., and 5-^. The average prices of beef were stationary ; but the average prices of the higher qualities fell from Gid. to 6-^d. ; the prices of the lower qualities rose from 3f c?. to 4c?. Again, the price of the best mutton by the carcase was 6ff?. at the beginning and the end of the period ; while the price of inferior mtitton fell a halfpenny in the pound. Potatoes, which are so important an article of food, were sold at the rate of 100s., 140s., and 87s. 6d. a ton at the waterside market, Southwark, in the last quarters of the three years 1856-7-8. Potatoes have been 37 per cent, cheaper than they were in the corresponding weeks of 1857, and 12 per cent, cheaper than they were in 1856. ( XVI ) THE PEIOE OF PROVISIONS. The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes ; also the averagk Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, iu each of the Nine Quarters ending December 31st, 1858. Quarters ending 1856 Dec. 31 1857 Mar. 31 June 30 Sept. 30 Dec. 31 1858 Mar. 31 June 30 Sept. 30 Dec. 31 Col. Average Price of Consols (for Money), 92i 93i 93 i 90J 89J 97g 96^8 98J Average I'rice of Wlieat per Quarter iu England and Wales. S. d. 63 4 56 10 56 9 59 II 52 o 46 5 44 I 44 7 41 9 Wheat and Wheat Flour entered for Home ■\Vheat sold in the 290 Cities and Townsin (. . England and ^^ Chief Ports Wales malting ^^ ^,^^^^ Britain.* Returns.* Average number of Quarters weekly. 112,909 { 103, 32f 102,433 51,310 107,850 ; 42,178 92,156 101,025 55,384 95,587 99,604 j 64,652 92,955 i 86,551 Average Prices of Meat per lb. at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets (by the Carcase). Mutton. Potatoes (York Regents) per Ton at ^Vatcrside Market, Southwark. 3f r2.-6ft/. 4f J.— 6f^. Mean 5 Jrf. ' Mean 5^0?. 97,307 *2,373 110,437 I 54,413 ^Id.—^ld. I Mean 5|d. 1 Aid.-^U. i Mean yld. j Mean 5^^. 4j^.-6K Mean 5^^^. 4jrf.-6iJ. I Mean ^\d. \ 4i(/.— 6(i. Mean i,\d. Ahd.-kid. Mean 5^^. 4^. — t^d. Mean 5^^. ^Id.-ild. Mean d-^d. 4f 2 Agriculture oj Shropshire. sound blue or grey stone, valuable as road metal, and when mouldered into soil makes very useful tillage land. We find in these rocks an abundance of fossils, especially corals and crinoidea. The Ludlow formation is about 2000 feet in thickness, and is composed of the Lower Ludlow rocks, the Aymestry limestone, and Upper Ludlow rocks. The Lower Ludlow rocks consist of a. succession of shales similar in colour to the VVenlock shales. These shales are called mudstones in Shropshire. The Aymestry limestones are hard and of the usual grey or blue colour. The Upper Ludlow rocks are chiefly sandstone rocks, with lime and clay occasionally appearing amongst them. The soils upon the Ludlow formation ai'e exceedingly variable. Clays naturally of a retentive character are often laid dry by the peculiar fractures of the rock beneath producing a good natural drainage. Where these soils have not Ijeen intermixed with other soils by washing, they are not of high character as arable land. The Devonian system is exceedingly intermixed in this district ; the general order of succession for these rocks is as follows : — Red conglomerates with interlying beds of sandstone, varying in colour from red to green, and in character from sandstones to marls. The soils formed from the decay of these rocks are generally poor hungry sands ; but when they get natural supplies of lime and clay they become valuable. After these beds we come upon the cornstones and marls of this system. These are concrete masses of limestones, and with them we have the varie- gated marls which are of red and jjreen colours. These yield strong but rich and valuable soils. The lowest beds are the tile- stones, which, as their name describes, are thin laminated masses, splitting readily into thin flags, and varying in colour from reddish- green to green. The coal measures of Shropshire are most extensive in the Coalbrook-dale district ; we also find them in the plain of Shrewsbury, and in the south-east of the county. Valuable as these beds are in other branches of commercial industry, they generally bear an opposite relation to the agriculturist, as the soils formed upon them are generally poor, heavy, and cold ; but we shall have further opportunity of noticing the soils of the county more in detail. The Climate of a district exerts a powerful influence upon the management of land, the crops giown, and the seasons for sowing, as well as the produce ; and in order that a person may judge of the suitability of any particular practice to another district, he has not only to know the geological formation and the soil, but also the climate. I am fortunate in being able to lay before the reader the following observations upon the weather, which have been taken with Agriculture of Shropshire. < H ^. ^11 o M « CO t>- r- w t» o o t» I^ o CO CO CO ;«-=>• >» ^. o > ^ c s Si J J3 O o . . o • >. >, > " a; s 01 O o fa o o ■* a> =5— S •a "3 S?^ "^ ^ ^ CO *f cr> . ^ ■o 'd' «> CO ^ w TJ< 00 _ ^ •laqiuaoBQ o":- 1^ CO m ■♦ CO »ra in «o ^ ■<>• CO '^ U5 M CO in in •^ _ CO CO •jaqopo °^ i--. 1- C4 i^ N ■* 1- •* o ■» •n a* w ^ CO •* CO Ol Ol IM ■^ •IsnSny n'r' I- '^ o CO in o r- i» o> in to >o J,. in Ol CO Ol CO in ^-, o» o o « j^ « >n in t~ ■* 1^ u> CI in ^ Ol •aniif °m CI •o CJ to <—* in to in to •n (^ ■o o »o (M (N ■* in o> o o> «o ■«• '^ I' •* in ^ T*« tn o> >n ^ in •^BH • n ■*f — < CO ^ ^-, ,—i .H 01 Ol o Cl Cl ■n Tj« 1- CO LI '-" _, •* c^ T)< Ol ■* Ol ■\ui\ n =:^ •o in CO CO CO 00 -^ «> CO to Ol CO ^ 1ft c« CS ■* CI •IJWBK o9 o C-l in in CO 7" CO 7" «o 'P f la (M CO in to ,_, I~ _ O) Ol •^JBtlJipj o "^ r^ 1^ lO 1^ 1^ Ol ^ oo CO Tf CO >n fS in CO i< CO CO n (M Ol CO o> OT ■«• CO in ot CO •a 1 - • s 3 O) o a a < "3 : -3 S B § 'c g C o - c o - * * "J; s S 'S s ° >. 3 - ii; — j= fa S 5 c o B - : i e - - : : s a - 3 s : , . S S s s; H S S s S pq b2 Agriculture of Shropshire. t >. >• >^ ■i c o S -kj « ■« > t- c> c o B *4 t* "3 ^ ^ ^ B IS o O - o s 'v >-. >^ 3 J '"! ^ "? ^ 'w ^ o ^ re & J Si rt > iS o fc s£ C ^ '' (« '" (ft "^ M t/j ' . TJ4 o> to ^^ S o T 00 «5 in o • • • m i- TM ^ M ■?!< Jl, m tH o . . cn o» s ■V O •r to TO 03 c« CI CI CM o'.- . . . OO OB 'J' . . 00 lO . 03 en TP 1-4 c« CO 00 >o •O in m OS to m »^ ^ ^ n to 1.0 i< to 00 •S CI M ■* ,_( 23 l'^ •* CJ CI Ol CT r-l T' ira 'J' ts CO CO ^^ Cl (N 1(5 «n o» »» e- o» ^ or • in i'" CJ o ■^ CO 1^ CO !■" 00 ^ ^ en to CJ •* in ^ 1-1 -r to CO IM CI CI Cl in >n 00 >^ in Cl 1^ CI Cl ^« • • J_- (M ■n 00 to •tr CO to 00 n • • in m CI 1*- 00 in to en I-t '^ ta CO CO eo CI Cl g __ CO ^ CI ,, , _ oT in •n CI CI t_- • CO 00 »- CI to CI CO i-t to CO CO CI c5 in •n ^ V w to 1^ o *? " CJ CI 1^ 00 m ■* « ■? o *#< / 1 u» TO TO iH •J CO CO CO N 0) •* to CO ?o o to tj< o • 00 1- V ?4 ■a< CI 00 >o OO s 00 to ^ o • 00 00 •tC m iH V CI • • • ' c ■ ,4j 2i • " * fc^ "lO tc , ec ^• •V c ■5 ■i. It a 3 _c * ^ " (? a g rt et *5 r - s g o t„ _E £ ^ £ rt E '5 E tX) 2 o t g 1 o >. >■ X' ^ tn •^ C3 c c t- o Cm o o ; : o a ; : : : c: c c I ^ g IS c rt c H S r3 s Agriculture of Shropshire. i^ ^ ^ ^( G^ :«c* 10:0 ^T rJ"MCO ■?> »0 ^ ^ "^ O o r^ .^ o ' •- Wt* 1^ 01 -^ O lO CO — 10 o ^ ,0 -^ i >n 10 rj f t, c -a a;3 £ . « >- a « 3 ■- c *i 4) g fi. o •-- *^ s s * g £ = 2 g^ S fS K S '5 ra 11 00 1 1 --co - N -J- e-J 'C. .n .-0 X -4 to to CO ^ 1 GO . . , in CO 1 CO miM — l^.*j -m ;- :« : s; «S rt .^•^ — ^I.l 1 •M ool . ^ '' 1 — u Z CO 1 J2 lOi-ootocj .-iin — -r — Tilto 00 . 1 ^ us 00 to 1^ Tj< CO -a" CO • Ti to — -f — 'I" 00 coMcoco— 'CO— 'OJ — CON ; 55 CO . ._4^co« • — (M ;'^-' j;j Z 1« s *nr3 — cocico •c-joi-^'i* ■ to CO • — ie»ei-« -M— — (Moi^ l>n 1856 oi^oor~«oojocooo-r^i~toasto 1^' 25 1 in •* to "0 ■»'n • — — x^ .CO — ^>n : 00 1 1 ^ 1 !^ ^ 1 ^ 1 uj_iTi.-*eqP3C0«n-*l^ ; ; Jg 1 "5 mco'*co-co>nco'Mco«^ 1 00 '^ 1 r-t to 1 S inw -in-^^ooc^coinc^in \n M »« 1 1 2 CO — -o ..^ootDi'ioo — ■*(>n S CO -f to 'O "n to X oc e> ci CO 1- C • St3 ■^ lis 5 i ''^ p-_2 3 2 " ij tj ^ 1* 1 6 Agriculture of Shropshire. with great accuracy and care.* In Table No. I. (p. 3) the climate of each month in the year is shown, and the observations are spread over a sufficient length of time to give these averages a considerable degree of certainty; whilst in Table No. II. (p. 4) the climate of each separate year is given, which will enable a comparison to be made, showing as it does the limits within which the climate of Shropshire varies. In Table No. III. (p. 5) I have collected some information upon the climate of the different seasons. These obser- vations were taken by Mr. Blunt of Slirewsbury. In Table No. IV. (p. 5) I have shown the prevailing winds, compiled from obser- vations taken by Rev. J. Brooke, of Haughton Hall, ShifFnal. With these data a comparison may be instituted between this county and any other. For information respecting the climates of different districts, the reader is referred to Mr. Whitley's Prize Essay, ' The Climate of the British Islands.' * The Eastern side of Shropshire possesses a dry and warm climate ; but the west and south-western sides are subject to heavy falls of rain and a very moist atmosphere. This is caused by the lofty hills which gather the rain-bearing clouds brought by the west and south-west winds ; and these being cooled by contact with the mountainous ridges throw down considerable quantities of rain, and then pass on over the warmer part of the county without depositing much rain. Thus, whilst in the south and western portions, rain is produced chiefly by the hilly nature of the district, on the eastern part it is generally produced by cold winds from the east or north-east piercing the western rain-bearing currents, and thus compelling them to make further deposits of moisture. The western valleys, owing to their moisture, are also ex- tremely liable to injurious hoar-frosts, and their productiveness is considerably affected by them. The cold of winter is often severe in the west from the winds which come from the Welsh hills. On the east the winters are considerably milder, nor do we here experience at any time of the year such sudden changes in the temperature of the day and night as our more western and southern neighbours have to combat with. This is very im- portant, especially in the seasons of growth. As we shall have occasion to refer from time to time to this subject, I shall at * To Lord Wrottesley, Eev. J. Brooke of Haughton Hall, near ShifFnal, Mr. Thomas Blunt of Shrewsbury, and Mr. F. Morton of the Wrottesley Observatory, my best thanks are due, for placing at my disposal the valuable observations I have condensed into the foregoing tables. Wrottesley Observatory is 525 feet above the level of the sea, lat. 52° 37' 2", long. Oh. 8m. 49s. W. ; the bulb of the ther- mometer, 4 feet from the ground. The rain-gauge is 22 feet from the ground, and 547 feet above the level of the sea. Shrewsbury is situated lat. 52° 42' 28'', and long. 2^ 44' 53" W., and about 300 feet above the level of the sea. * Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society, vol. ii. p. 1. Agriculture of Shropshire. 7 once proceed to divide the county into districts and notice each in succession. In the division of Shropshire into districts it has seemed desir- able to group together such tracts of land as possess similarity of character. This, hovv^ever, in Shropshire is by no means easily done, in consequence of the rapid variations in the soil. It has seemed best to notice it under three districts, which are shown in the accompanying map. District No. I. This tract of land is commonly known as the Wheat-land district. It extends over an area of about 120,000 acres, and is inclosed by a line passing through the following places. It commences on its western side at the border of the county, near Tenbury, then passes to Great Cairnham, 2 miles east of Ludlow, 1 mile west of Middleton, thence to Hope, Lower and Upper Hayton, (jreat Sutton, Stanton Long, 1^ miles east of Monk Hopton to Bourton,and half-way between the latter place and Much Wenlock. This terminates its western boundary. It then takes a south- easterly direction towards Astley Abbot, and passing thence to Morvil we describe a circle around Bridgnorth at a radius of about 3 or 4 miles until we reach Chittor, thence through Chelmarsh to Alverley, and the river Severn completes the boun- dary to the edge of the county. The surface is exceedingly undulating in its general character, and from amongst these minor elevations the Clee Hills stand boldly forward at a considerable elevation. There is scarcely any part of the district which is not characterised by this con- tinuous succession of round -topped hills. Numerous valleys are consequently formed, and a great variety of aspect is thus often obtainable even on a small farm. This is often taken advantage of for the purpose of shelter, by judiciously planting belts of wood, and thus some pieces of land are nicely sheltered from cold and severe winds, and are consequently of increased value during inclement weather. The soil generally varies from a strong loam to clay upon a subsoil of marly clay. The quality is seldom good, and as a general rule is scarcely of a medium degree of fertility ; but in some parts the soil is of better quality, such as the tract of land stretching across the central portion of the district from west to east at Burwarton, Wrickton, Bould, Botterill Aston, West Cleobury, Middleton, Scriven, and Billingslee, and especially when the land is in close proximity to the Ray Brook, for there we find some very useful grass-land. To the north and also to the south of this belt of land we have a cold clay of inferior character existing very generally to the extreme limits of the district. Amongst it are many spots ot 8 Agriculture of Shropshire. drier soil, some even becoming gravelly ; and so frequently does this happen that the majority of farms have at least a iew acres of this dry land. Still the general character of the soil is poor and tenacious and of a low degree of fertility. Much of this tract is rented at from \2s. to 155. per acre, whilst other farms will average 25^. per acre. The average rental may be con- sidered to be from 18^. to 20.'>. per acre, and in many cases dear at the rents paid. As a natural sequence the farmers of this part are not so advanced as in other parts of the county, neither have improvements been carried out here with the spirit which has been manifested in tlie other districts. The best farmers in this district manage their land upon the following course of cropping : — Fallow, wheat, clover. Lent corn ; fallow, wheat, pulse. In working tJieir falloics, the general system differs but little from that generally pursued in other parts of England. Few plough their land as early in the winter as is desirable, and consequently much of the winter is passed before the land is exposed to the action of the sun, frost, and air, besides which the land is seldom ploughed deeper than 4 or 5 inches. Such is too frequently the case, and although there are pleasing exceptions, thev .are but of rare occurrence. In increasing the depth of the soil, this early winter ploughing is the one by which it should be done ; then the winter frosts crumble any adhesive and refractory portions into finer particles, whilst the action of the atmosphere tends to sweeten and purify. Much of the efficacy of the entire process of fallowing depends upon the first plougli- ing being done early in the season, so as to get the soil tliorongldg acted upon by the atmospheric agencies. The labour during tiie following season is much facilitated thereby, for land thus treated will by the early spring have become tlioroughly broken up and almost pulverized. In very many cases I have seen the benefits thus realised entirely destroyed by too much haste in the spring ploughing, that is, from not giving the land full time to become properly dry before it is turned over. It is far better not to plough such land at all in the early spring than to destroy the winter's work by burying the crumbled surface soil, where it is sure to become as soft and greasy as ever. I would rather the horses and men were quite unoccupied, than have them undoing the winter's work by ploughing the land too soon. I therefore strongly urge the great importance of giving the land ample time in the spring before the second ploughing is done. This should never be deeper tlian the preceding ploughing, for any fresh soil now brought up retains through the summer months its uncongenial character, and detracts proportionately from the benefit of the fallowing. As soon as the root crop is sown, the labour of the farm is Atpicnlture of Shropshire. 9 again directed to the fallows, and by the aid of lieavy diajjs and rollers, the land becomes reduced and well intermixed. If the soil is foul, it is worked into a finer tilth than would otherwise be thought desirable. The endeavour should be to get the soil exposed to the action of the air and sun as perfectly as possible, and yet avoid reducing it into such a pulverized state, that heavy rain would, make it run together. This can be very readily accomplished when the land is free from weeds and rubbish, but when the land is foul, it must necessarily be reduced, in order to clear it. Throughout the summer months our proceedings must be regulated by this principle ; and by alternately inverting by the aid of the plough, and intermixing the soil by the aid of drags and rollers, we shall store the soil with those elements of fertility which it is capable of secreting within its particles, and which are there jealously retained until required for giving vigour to the growing plant. The argument that fallows arc unnecessary is fallacious ; upon certain soils they are superior to any other mode of management. Many of the agreements under which Innd is held in this dis- trict require that the land under fallow shall receive fovr ploughings — one before March, and three in May, June, or July ; and these ploughings will be sufficient for making a good fallow, provided the land is well dragged (and rolled if desirable) in the mean time. There is a very strong feeling amongst many farmers here against ploughing across the land, and it is there- fore usual for the plough always to follow the same line, and for the drags and scuffles, &c., to go across the furrow slice, I must here again refer to the importance of commencing the fallow — either bare fallows, or for a fallow crop — as soon after harvest as possible. Tlie advantages of autumn cultivation are not sufficiently appreciated in this district ; with a peculiarly tenacious soil, in a treacherous climate, the autumn work is the key-stone of success. If the surface can be pared with Bentall's broadshare, and the weeds, &c., burnt and ploughed up early in the winter, the work in the spring will be materially lightened, and the fallowing will be carried out much more effectivehf. Valuable as this time is for bare fallows, it is especially important when a fallow crop is going to be raised ; and the peculiarity of the dis- trict makes these operations — which are so generally acknow- ledged to be important — of more than usual influence. The fallows are generally limed, and frequently dunged also ; 100 bushels of lime and 12 cubic yards of dung per acre is tlie quantity prescribed in most of the agreements, and this is a suitable allowance for such land. The dung is frequently spread on the land before the stubble is ploughed ; and this is considered a successful plan, as the dung keeps the land 10 Agriculture of Shropshire. drier and more open through the winter. Nor is there any danger of waste upon this land, for the soil is quite fitted to retain all the fertilizing matter of the dung ; in fact, the dung which is ready in time for being put on the stubble is generally used for this purpose — except when the young seeds come in for a share, which is also an excellent plan — and it may be safely said, that the limited supply of dung is the great cause of its not being more generally adopted. The lime is generally applied after the second ploughing, having been drawn to the field during the frosts of winter and spring, and made into heaps about the field, and intermixed with earth carted from near the hedges. After being spread on the land, it is well inter- mixed with the soil by the di'ags, scuffles, and harrows. It should be distributed through the soil as completely as possible, lor this is an important point, and materially increases its efficiency in the land. When the lime is simply spread on the land after the dragging and working has been done, and then ploughed under, it is very apt to sink out of the soil, and becomes, prac- tically speaking, lost ; whereas, if well mixed with the soil, this is prevented. In addition to this, another inducement to have it thoroughly distributed through the soil is the action Avhich it exerts on the manure previously added to the land. The dung is thus more completely decomposed, consequently becomes more readily incorporated with the soil, and of more value in promoting vegetable growth. The use of lime is certainly not so extensive as it was, and many employ guano as a substitute, and the experience of those who have done so is very strong in favour of the same results being gained. Can it be that the experience of these true men of practice is another instance of practice anticipating the dis- coveries of science, and thereby adding some additional confirm- ation to the opinions expressed, and the suggestions given, by Professor Way, in that valuable Paper on the Influence of Lime on the Absorptive Properties of the Soil?* In that investigation, two important results were arrived at: "That soils and subsoils, even long before the reach of ordinary farm operations, always contain a very sensible quantity of ammonia. In some cases, the quantity present is very many times more than would be added in a very heavy dressing of guano, or other ammoniacal manure. The second result which is exhibited by these experiments is (Jiat the action of lime in the presence of water is to set free from the soil, as nearly as possible, one half of the ammonia.''^ It is also worthy of observation, that the extent to which soils possess the power of absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, is far beyond our * Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, vol. xv. p. 512. Agriculture of Shropshire. 11 previous ideas on the subject. The same investigation gives examples: "Take for instance soil No. 17 (soil of the London clay, from between Farnham and Guildford, 3^ feet. below the surface), and No. 15 (the surface soil above No. 17), and we find, that in either case, ammonia to the extent of three tons per acre, equal to 20 tons of guano, would be absorbed before the power to absorb it ceased. But a further suggestion is conveyed by the result of these experiments ; lime is capable of liberating one half of the ammonia contained in a soil. Is it now possible that for profitable agricultural use the ammonia of the soil is too tightly locked up in it?" "Lime may be the remedy at the command of the farraer — his means of rendering immediately available stores of wealth, which can otherwise only slowly be brought into use." It would therefore appear, that the lime acted as a liberator of the ammonia of the soil, and therefore is an equivalent for the use of an ammoniacal manure. I he evidence of this district is very decided, that they may be considered as substitutes ; and 1 believe these opinions may be explained on the principles named above. Successful practice does not con- tradict the laws of science, but shows a degree of harmony of which we become more fully cognizant, as our knowledge of the laws of nature increases. The process of fallowing having been completed, the fields are thrown up into narrow ridges, and are then ready for receiving the autumn corn. The width is generally regulated by the width of the implements used, the object being to keep the horses in the furrows, and thus they do not tread the lands between. This is very desirable, as the land is thus rendered sufficiently firm for the wheat to thrive, without having those impervious cups which the horses^ feet so generally leave on strong land. Fallow crops. — A portion of the land under fallow is devoted to the growth of fallow crops ; these may be vetches, rape, or roots. The growth of vetches and rape is seldom attempted ; in some iew instances they have been tried, and when the land has been properly prepared they have succeeded. These are crops peculiarly desirable for this district, because they can be consumed on the land without injury to the ground or the stock. I should not advise their growth on the poorest portions of the district, but they may certainly be grown on the intermediate quality land. The spring vetch is decidedly the best variety for this part ; the most successful mode of growth is to clean the land in the autumn, and having laid on some dung, to plough it rough for the winter. If vetches are to be grown, there must be sufficient condition in the land to ensure a good crop ; and if the field requires it, dung or some equivalent must be given to it. A good crop of vetches will smother weeds, but 1^ Af/riculture of Shropshire. a poor crop is sure to allow rubbish to grow, and thereby the land suffers more than is gained by the crop. A bare fallow is always to be preferred to a bad crop of vetches. Witli a proper preparatory tillage we thus secure many of the advantages of the bare fallow, but we also add a considerable quantity of vege- table and animal manure to the land which it would not other- wise have had, and the land will still be in excellent condition for wheat, as there is ample time for cleaning the land, after the vetches have been consumed, before the time comes for sowing the wheat. There is another decided advantage gained by the growth of vetches, as more stock can be kept throiif/hoiit the year, and they yield valuable food for fattening sheep. Rape occupies a very similar position, and offers the advan- tage of being cultivated with more certainty, and giving a good change of food. Here, as in the case of the vetch, it will be found more advantageous to cultivate 1 acre well than 3 acres badly. The extent sown must depend upon the strength which is at the farmer's disposal ; l;ut the chief point must be to cultivate only as much as can be done irell. For this purpose it should be ploughed up before winter and freely exposed to the air, and in tlie spring, work it as if for turnips, and then drill it 20 inches v/ide with artificial manure — say 2 cwt, of guano and 2 cwt. of superphosphate of lime per acre. This should be done at inter- vals, commencing early in INIay and ending with the first week in June. : When the crop is well out in rough leaf it should be singled out 8 inches apart, and well horse-hoed. The horse- hoeing should be continued at frequent intervals, and the result will be a luxuriant crop of rape, which may be commenced feed- ing by the middle of August or early in September, The land may thus be cleaned, and heavy crops matured readv for being fed by sheep on the land, at a time of the year when the greatest advantage is to be realized, and when especially wanted for finishing off the fattening wethers and culled ewes. The advantage of being able to feed a crop on the land, not only without injury, but with positive advantage, must be duly con- sidered ; the labour of drawing away the crop and bringing back the manure being thus saved, the horses can l)e put to more profitable employment. To attempt, as a general rule, to fatten sheep (upon land of this nature) during the winter and spring months, can only result in disappointment and loss. There are drier spots which form an exception to this rule, but I refer especially to the heavy and tenacious soils which abound here. On these soils the summer and autumn are the only seasons in which sheej) can be advantageously fattened ; any artificial food now given will make a good return, whilst its consumption in the wet seasons cannot fail to be unprofitable. The climate in the Agriculture of Shropshire. 13 spring will have considerable influence in extendinfi;' or lessening the growth of these crops ; to be done successfully it is neces- sary to be able to turn in a full force ; not commencing too soon, and thus injuring the winter's pulverization of the land, but im- mediately the fitting moment arrives to be able to concentrate more than an ordinary strength. This is no insurmountable objection, for, as we shall see subsequently, the circumstances of the neighbourhood allow it to be done. The Culture of Root Crops. — At the present time probably one-third of the fallow ground is devoted to the growth of roots. A larger proportion has been grown than is now done, but this increase of growth has not been found desirable under present circumstances. The tillage is commenced as if for bare fallowing, but the dryest and cleanest land is selected for roots, whilst the heavy and foul pieces are left for fallow. Land selected for roots would, as a general rule, be ploughed before the fallow land, and also receive more prompt attention in the spring. The land having been cleaned in the dry weather of March and April, as opportunity may offer, is prepared for swedes as near the middle of May as possible. We do not find as much farmyard manui'e used for swedes as is desirable. Some draw it on the land, and plough it in before winter, whilst others adopt the plan of spreading it on the land after the working is finished, and then throw the land into ridges from 20 to 30 inches wide. When no dung is used, 3 cwt, guano is generally substituted, and this is sown broadcast mixed with an equal weight of salt just ])efore the land is ridged up. During the last season, in consequence of the scarcity of guano, considerable quantities of superphosphate of lime were used, and it was found to answer very well ; but a mixture is found to be better than either alone. By sowing the guano broadcast they avoid any injury to the seed from its caustic character ; and by drilling the super- phosphate with some ashes the young plant is pushed rapidly into rough leaf, I observe that salt is almost always used with guano in equal quantities, and it is always mixed for a few days before using. It is not used with any idea of fixing the ammonia, as has frequently been done, but simply because the humid character of the salt gives a density to the guano, and thus prevents much being blown away when sown broadcast ; and besides this its moisture favours its subsequent action in the soil. Some farmers, in addition to the 3 cwt, guano, use also 3 cwt. of superphosphate : this, however, is quite exceptional. When the held has had dung, one half the usual quantity of artificial manure would be used. The usual time to commence sowing swedes is the 14th of May, and all should be sown by June 1st. It is a common saying that " None beat their first days' sowing 14 Agriculture of Shropshire. of swedes." Turnips may be sown up to the end of June. In some few cases turnips and rape are mixed and sown early in May, and thus come in for early autumn feed, and the land is clean for corn sowing- before it becomes wet. The Skirvings swede is most largely cultivated, and for this district is considered the hardiest root and the best cropper. On some of the better portions the Ashcroft swede comes more into favour. The red and green rounds are much liked as hardy turnips, the former more particularly. Mangold-wurtzel is grown, but only to a very small extent ; neither do carrots nor parsnips receive much attention. They can, however, be grown successfully on the better soil, and in spring are very useful as a change of food for the stock. One great cause of the small growth of mangold-wurtzel is the difficulty of preparing the land for receiving the seed in proper time. This may be obviated by another system, which, although well known and extensively practised in other parts, is not adopted here, and yet I know of no district better adapted for it. The land having been cleaned after harvest, as already described, should be ploughed and then ridged up, say 27-inch ridges, the manure spread in the fuiTows ; the ridges are then split, the ground left rough for the winter. Thus the land lies in ridges all through the winter, and the dung is in the centre of each ridge. No loss arises in this manner from the washing of the manure, for the land is too retentive to allow of it, and the advantage is that the winter frosts crumble and mellow the soil on these ridges, so that we have a fine seed bed earlier in the spring than we can have in any other way, and if the mangold-wurtzel is drilled by hand, the seed can be sown as early as is desirable, and we are comparatively independent of the early spring weather, which is always exceedingly fickle and tedious to the grower of these roots. If the weather is favourable, the ridges may be shaped up by having a plough passed down the furrow, but on no consideration should this be done so as to bring up an uncongenial soil. This is easily corrected after the mangolds are up and growing, for a little additional work with the stirrers between the rows will loosen the soil and work it into good condition. The globe mangold-wurtzel is best suited for this district, and is generally selected. On the dry land the turnips are fed in the field, but in other cases they have to be drawn home. A vast amount of labour is thus involved, and considerable damasre done to the land. Few manage to get the roots off the ground soon enough, and con- sequently the land is sadly pressed by the horses and carts, often destroying the advantages of the summer's tillage. This has led many to lessen their breadth of roots, and to have Afjriculture of SkropsJiire. 15 vetches or bare fallow instead. I should decidedlj advise the growth of vetches or rape where the root crop is decreased, because the same objection does not apply here. There is no mechanical injury done to the land by the removal, and the land is decidedly enriched by the crop being fed upon the surface at a time of year when there is no injury produced by the treading of sheep. There is another reason which operates practically, and that is the absolute value of the root crop when it has to be transported far. The value of roots as a food must be entirely dependent upon their composition. I subjoin an analysis of the swede- turnip, and to show the contrast I have added an analysis of linseed cake. Swede Turnip. Linseed Cake. Moisture 89-26 .. .. 12-44 Oil or fatty matter . . Flesh-fornnng princiiilcs Heat-givinp;; substances Mineral matter 0-2 1-443 8-474 -623 100-000 12-79 27-28 41-36 6-13 100- Now it is evident that in drawing home 10 tons of swedes we draw home 9 tons of water and only 1 ton of food, and hence, if we multiply the cost of roots per ton by 10 we have the expense of the food we are using, for it is on the solid matter of the food we must calculate the value, for the water can be added from the pump. A reference to these analyses shows very clearly that the matter when dry is very inferior to linseed cake in point of muscle and fat-producing matter, and my own belief is that their value and relative cost approximate. If such is the case with the swede, with how much more force does it apply to the common turnip. The expen.se of removal from the ground, and the carting of the manure back again to the land, becomes a matter for serious consideration on the heavy land of this district. In many instances the growth of root crops appears to have been carried beyond a profitable point. The practice of this district shows a decreasing growth of roots, and if this is met by an increasing breadth of green crops, which can he consumed on the land, then the latter will more than compensate for any loss. This loss of winter food has to be met, or else the system must be modified to meet the change. If a substitute can be found in the purchase of artificial food to be consumed with the straw of the farm, then it is clear there is no great difficulty to overcome. I must not here be understood to advocate an entire cessation from growing turnips, but rather to keep their cultivation within such limits that the cTops can he removed without destroying the benefit of the summer's tillaye operations ; for if more food is wanted 16 Agriculture of Shropsldre. for store stock in the winter months, it is better to purchase linseed cake or some other artificial food to give with the straw. Mj own experience and observation are clearly in favour of using- such food for store stock, and I believe more profit is made from using it with store stock than for fatting cattle. This of course presumes that the farmer keej)s his stock on an improving system, and not, as is too frequently the case, alternately on good and bad keep, losing under the latter that which had been gained under the former. I'Vkeat. — This is the chief corn crop of this district, and has given its name to it for many years past. In lact, from 20 to 30 years back wheat was almost the only produce sold in the market. It was an old saying of that time, that " the pigs eat all the peas, the men eat all the pigs, the horses eat all the oats, and there was only wheat left to be sold." In more recent times the spirit of enterprise has found its way here, and a better system of tillage has resulted, whereby a considerable quantity of spring corn and meat finds its way to market as well as wheat. It was then the principal product of the land, and so it is at the present time. It is sometimes sown upon tlie clover ley, but not often. Nearly all is sown upon fallows, or after a fallow crop removed or consumed early. The varieties commonly sown are the old red Lammas, Bristol red, Devonshire red, and Spalding wheat, and they are preferred in the order in which they are named. The seed is generally sown broadcast on the fallows, at the rate of 2^ bushels per acre, but on clover leys and pea stubble it is drilled, and then two bushels are sown to the acre. The season commences about the 1st of October, and they endeavour to finish before the month is ended, but the farmers of this sort of land cannot always do as they would. Many dress their wheat with lime, others with blue vitriol, or else with " farmers' friend." I have known it damped and dried again with guano, but this is generally done wlien sown rather late ; great care is taken to keep the horses in the furrows between the lands, so as to avoid treading the land sown, and when the sowing is complete the water-furrows are opened out with an unusual degree of care. This is done to give free exit for surface drainage, and to prevent the water being ponded back, to the injury of the wheat plant in the winter months. The wheat-fields, when finished, generally present a neat and workmanlike appearance. The crops cannot be said to average above 22 or 24 bushels per acre, and although 30 or 32 bushels luay sometimes be met with, it is by no means frequent. The use of a top-dressing of guano and salt, intermixed with a little mould to give it bulk, is decidedly a good plan for assisting the crop; but under any cir- Agriculture of Shropshire. 1 7 cumstances large crops are not obtainable, for, although it is called the wheat-land district, it is not situated in a climate favourable to the growth of corn. This must necessarily keep the average low, even when the soil and management are otherwise equal to greater returns ; for this reason white wheats are seldom sown, being too delicate in their habit. The crops are generally harvested by the aid of Welsh and Irishmen, Avho come here freely at this season of the year. The Irish always cut the wheat with the sickle, but the Welshmen use the broad hook, and bag the wheat : the latter plan is generally preferred be- cause straw is scarce. Considerable advantage would result from the adoption of a mode practised in the south-west parts of England for facilitating the harvesting of the corn ; for, like the counties of Cornwall and Devon, the harvest weather is often treacherous. The plan consists in making a number of small stacks about the field as soon as the corn is cut : each stack is commenced by placing three or four sheaves upright in the centre, and then laying sheaves around tliem, so as to make the width of the bottom of the heap about twice the length of a sheaf, and from the bottom upwards it is gradually dimi- nished in width so as to make it into a conical heap. It is made secure by some straight straw tied at the top, and opened out so as to turn the rain off from the centre. These can be stacked at l.S'. per acre, and if the weather sets in wet, the corn is safe ; should it prove dry, the warm air passes through the stack and prepares it for carrying. In this manner corn cut dry may be saved in very M'et seasons without loss and injury. One-half of the wheat stubble is devoted to the growth of clover, and the remainder to peas and beans. Peas and Beans are looked upon with some degree of uncer- tainty, as they are particularly subject to a blight, which is either induced or favoured by the climate of the district, and thus the vitality of the blossom is destroyed. Of the two crops peas are most frequently successful, and therefore most frequently grown ; they are generally sown upon a corn stubble, which has had some lime brushed in. The Early White-eye pea is generally sown at the rate of three bushels per acre, and produces in a favourable season about 30 bushels per acre. It is rather a singular c:ircumstance that although both peas and beans are liable to blight, especially the beans, yet when sown together they suffer much less than when sovi^n separate. This practice is, therefore, frequently adopted in other equally unfavourable dis- tricts, and I should expect would succeed here as well as there : when this is done it is particularly desirable to select varieties which are ready for cutting at the same time. The other portion of the wheat stubble is devoted to the growth of clover. VOL. XIX. C 18 Agriculture of Shropshire. Clover. — The land is generally laid down in clover with the wheat crop. It is then (or should be) clean and in good con- dition, in consequence of the fallowing of the land, and hence well prepared for receiving the clover. Only one-half of the wheat is sown with clover, as the land becomes tired of it if repeated more frequently, and the result is a failure in plant : it is thus only repeated once in seven or eight years, which is found quite frequent enough. Generally 10 lbs. or 14 lbs. of clover are sown with the rye-grass, sometimes white, and some- times red, and occasionally both mixed together: some of the agreements bind the tenants to sow one peck of rye-grass and 16 lbs. of either red or white clover per acre, and in some few cases trefoil is added. There is certainly room for improvement in the clover-leys of this district, as they are seldom good ; they may be very much improved by a Judicious mixture of seeds, and the following have been recommended,* and, from my own ex- perience of their value, I can advise their use. Lolium It^xlicum , , perenne Dactylis glomerata . . Phleiim pratense .. Medicago lupulina .. Trifolium hybridum , , pratense . . , , , , perenne , , repens For one Year's Hay. lbs. 9 18 For one Year's Hay and one Year's Pasture. For one Year's Hay and two Years' Pasture. lbs. 9 lbs. 9 18 18 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 4 Having received a proper selection of seed oi good quality, the next care is to see that it is properly sown ; the surface must be harrowed so as to break the crust, and form a proper seed-bed, the brush and roller following the seed-barrow will complete the operation. Care must be taken to avoid a windy day, and also to protect the seeds after sowing from birds, &c. The seeds may be lightly fed after harvest, and well rolled down before winter. It is an excellent plan to manure the young seeds with farm- yard dung in the autumn ; it affords them shelter and nourishment, which is exceedingly valuable, and the benefit is fully shown in the following spring. Any compost matter comes in esjiecially useful for this purpose, and will tend materially to overcome the risk of the plant not standing the winter. The clover-ley is one * Morton's 'Encyclopaedia of Agriculture,' vol. i. p. 1000. Agriculture of Shropshire. 10 of the most important crops to be secured for the profitable management of this description of land ; it affords the oppor- tunity of improving the quality and condition of the land with but little expense. When the crop is consumed on the land, and artificial food given to the sheep with it, the expense of the food is repaid by the stock, and the land is left in better condition. The clover crop may well be considered the sheet-anchor for the farmer of this district, and much still remains to be done to manage this crop as it should be. Many farmers do apply dung to their seeds, and they certainly excel their neighbours in consequence : nor is the benefit confined to the clover crop, for a luxuriant growth above-ground entails an equally free develop- ment below, and thus the ground becomes stored with a mass of vegetable matter which decays and gives good support to the succeeding corn crops. When the seeds hold firm, the land is often left unploughed for two years, and the pasturage con- tinues good, as the climate is favourable for the growth of herbage. Sheep and young stock are often kept upon the clover- ley during the early winter months, and have turnips or other food drawn to them ; the ley is then broken for oats : and this brings me to notice — Spring Corn. — Oats are generally sown upon a clover ley, for which purpose it is ploughed in the winter, which allows the turf time to decay, whilst the soil also becomes sweetened and prepared to give the oat a good seed-bed. The oats are sown as early in February as the weather will allow ; for early sowing is considered especially desirable upon these soils, whicli are naturally slow in perfecting their crops. It is also very general to sow oats after roots ; and here also the early sowing is desirable. About 4 bushels is the usual quantity of seed whicli is sown, and this is generally done broadcast. The drill is occasionally used, but is by no means general. The chief advantage in sowing broadcast is the greater breadth which can be sown when the land is ready. Much as one may desire to see improvements in agriculture extended, and the drill super- seding the primitive mode of sowing broadcast, yet when the climate and soil are both very treacherous and uncertain, speed becomes an object of considerable importance, and hence the broadcast keeps the lead, and will continue to do so unless in exceptional cases. The land here is often scarcely ready for sowing before the weather changes and rain falls. In sowing broadcast it can generally be sown two or three days earlier than it can be drilled ; and it often happens that this very time decides whether the field shall be sown in good time broadcast, or wait for drilling and have a late sowing. I am well awarr that this will be condemned by many advocates of agricul- C2 20 Agriculture of Shr-opshire. tural prog^ress, but I am convinced of its practical importance : and this is the truest standard. The general use of the drill for spring corn would prevent one-half of the present breadth being sown in good time, and would considerably diminish the produce per acre. The Poland oat is very generally grown ; and, after a clover ley, I consider 30 to 35 bushels the average produce, but after roots it may be calculated at from 35 to 40 bushels. When oats have been grown on clover ley the land is generally fallowed afterwards ; but when sown after roots it would be seeded out. Sprinr/ IfJieat is not generally grown except upon the best land ; and these instances are by no means frequent. As a rule, the oat is the more profitable crop, and better suited to the soil and climate. The red Russian wheat appears to answer best. The seeds grown under spring wheat are decidedly superior to those sown with barley or oats. Barley is grown much more freely than spring wheat, but is far from being so general as oats. The drier and best portions alone are suitable for its growth. The " Early " barley is the general favourite. The Chevalier is sometimes gi'ovvn, but is not so well liked. The barley requires very early sowing ; it is often done with success in January and February ; the sooner the land will allow it to be sown after the beginning of February, the better is the prospect ol a crop. The quality is not of first- class character ; and although one-half may be sold for malting, yet the maltsters are shy buyers when they know the district producing it. It is but just to say that this opinion is rather decreasing ; and whether it is based upon any difference in the composition of the grain 1 am not able to determine ; but pos- sibly this barley may have superior feeding qualities, and henco would be of less proportionate value for malting. When such a general opinion pervades a class of men it is scarcely fair to consider it only prejudice. It is certain that this is not a de- scription of soil especially favourable for the growth of barley, and hence it is probable that tlie produce has higher nutritive than malting properties. The average produce may be taken at about 30 bushels per acre. The Manarjement of Grass-Land now claims our notice. In this district probably 40,000 acres are under grass, and certainly are not managed as advantageously as they might be. If the cli- mate here is unfavourable to corn crops, it is in the same degree favourable for the growth of grass. The chief employment of the grass-land is for dairy purposes, for which the locality offers many inducements. The quality of the grass is, with iew ex- ceptions, scarcely good enough to graze bullocks for the butcher, and, therefore, it cannot be better employed than for dairy pur- Agriculture of Shropshire. 2 1 poses and the rearino^ of stock. In common with pasture-land in other parts of England, we find neglect very generally manifest in the management of grass-land. In short, it can scarcely be said to have any management, for the feeding of the grass and making some hay embodies nearly all that is done. Weeds and swamps abound where care and good oversight would soon remove them. I am convinced that a better management of the grass-land of this district will be eminently conducive to local prosperity, and there are no opportunities on the tillage-land of obtaining equally remunerative returns. Nature is here ready to co-operate, and this is a valuable help to the farmer. Neglect is tlie evil to be removed, and attention will soon correct many of the worst faults. To clear the land from weeds and an excess of water will be a matter of little difficulty when their removal is resolved upon. Unlike tillage land, we can correct these evils in our pastures with far less trouble. Many of these weeds are encouraged by, and depend upon this excess of water for their very existence, and hence a few drains will often coiTect the evil. As to the remainder of the weeds, the judicious use of the scythe, combined with proper feeding, will soon remove them and prevent further trouble. The next point to the keeping of the grass-land dry — both by drains and ditches — and free fiom weeds, is the use of manure. The use of farmyard dung is in the majority of cases quite im- possible, as the tillage land claims all that can be made ; but still it must be remembered that grass-land is exceedingly bene- fited by its use. We have, however, artificial manures which, although not equal to the dung-heap, are valuable substitutes and assistants. From a very extensive use of superphosphate of lime, I can speak with much confidence as to its value in encouraging the growth of the clovers and finer-quality grasses. Guano used alone brings a strong growth, but it has not the quality which follows the use of superphosphate. The best mode is to employ them mixed together, and then we secure both quantity and quality. An application of 1 cwt. of guano and 2 cwt. superphosphate per acre will have a striking effect upon the crop. Bones have long been used in our dairy districts, but I con- sider the use of superphosphate a great improvement, because 3'ou get greater advantages with less expenditure. Take, for instance, two pieces of land to be manured with bones and superphosphate respectively. ' Probably the bones would cost 8/. or 10/. per acre, and would scarcely act until the second year ; subsequently they would produce very satisfactory and remune- rative results. The superphosphate, however, acts immediately. 22 Agriculture of Shropshire. especially if mixed with guano. Supposing 2 cwt. of super- phosphate and 1 cwt, of guano applied at the cost of 21. per acre, we have an outlay scarcely exceeding the interest which the tenant would fairly expect from the outlay on bones. The in- crease of produce, however, repays the outlay for superphosphate before the end of the second year, and he has improved his pasture, got his capital returned and ready for re-investment, just when the bones are beginning to pay. This is very important to a tenant-farmer. He does not want his money to be slowly returning from the soil, but with promptitude, and thus the use of superphosphate especially meets his case. Besides this, many men, who could not invest 8/. or 10/. per acre for bones, and wait for the return, might spare 2/. per acre with the prospect of a quick return, and this is more especially the case where there is no security for a long tenure. The use of farmyard manure will be found valuable for improving the quality of the grass ; but, when this cannot be spared, we have in the superphosphate and guano excellent substitutes, which will soon repay the outlay with considerable profits. These manures will improve and increase the produce ; but I must briefly hint at one or two points respecting the use of the produce. In consuming the grass with dairy cows, or any other stock, it is desirable to feed the ground in regular succession. In doing so, rather concentrate the stock, and, having fed down the grass, give it a period for rest and purification, instead of allowing the stock to continue grazing irregularly over the whole ground. This may appear of small importance, but those who have tried both plans can testify to the manifest dif- ference in the produce both as to quantity and quality. Early in the season care must be taken not to graze too closely, but in the autumn it will be improved by close cropping. This concentra- tion of stock becomes even more important as the stock increases in number. In making hay there is room for great improvement. Much of it is overgrown and tough in its character; this is a sure sign of bad management. The grass should be cut when it is most full of nutriment, and that has been shown to be when it is in blossom. It should not be allowed to stand under pretext of there not being burthen enough, for if so the grass will have passed its best, and mucli of the goodness of the sap changed into woody matter, giving strength and firmness to the grass at the expense of its fattening and nutritive character. The next point is to be careful that in making it into hay its quality is not lost by this process ; this must be done with as little exposure to the sun as possible. The grass, when cut, should be well spread out, if the weather promises to be favourable ; but if not Agriculture of SItropshire. 23 likely to be haymaking: weather, let the grass remain in the swathe unmoved. Should the weather continue wet after the cutting, I should simply turn it over with a rake every other day. If, however, the weather promises fair, then the grass may be spread, and this will be done far more effectually by the use of a tedding or haymaking machine, than can possibly be done with the hand. However careful labourers may be — and at the hay season this can only be said of few, because of the inexperienced hands often pressed into the service — there will be locks or tufts of grass remaining unscattered. I firmly believe many stacks are heated or fired from this cause, but this never arises with a good haymaking machine. If only once well distributed, it never becomes so compact again. Whilst this is being done, the labourer may be engaged about other hay in a more advanced stage, or else in bringing out the grass near the hedges and under the trees into more drying parts of the field. This grass is generally more sappy and less easily dried than other parts, and hence should have every chance of drying and being in- termixed. An attention to these minutiae is more especially necessary, when we calculate upon allowing the stack to heat to a sufficient degree without becoming too hot. After the grass has been exposed to the sun for four or five hours it may then be gathered into rows — say four rakes to a row. The following morning these rows may be opened out over half the ground only, and being twice turned with the machine should be gathered, before the dew falls, into rows, and then run into cocks or pooks. The size of these will be regulated by the condition of the hay, and of course increased in proportion as the hay becomes drier. When advanced thus far the hay may be considered safe, except it is an exceedingly wet season, for it should never afterwards be out of control. In carrying forward the process of drying, these cocks should be opened out so as to let the air into the centre. If the weather is doubtful these cocks should simply be lightened up so as to air them, and then left as before ; and in proportion as the weather is more promising, in the same degree may they be laid open, but under no circumstances should the hay become spread over the ground again. It does not need the sun now, it is the passage of air through the heaps which will make the best hay. Having been treated in this manner, probably at the end of the third day it will be ready for carrying to the stack; but if of strong growth it will not, and must again be collected into cocks, but now they should be three times as large as before. I never think it a loss of labour to have the haycocks, both large and small, made so as to throw off the rain. The showers come often unexpectedly at this season, and many a wet morning follows a fine and hopeful 24 Agriculture of Shropshire. day. It is therefore better to be guarded, and especially so in such a treacherous climate as that of this district. The larger cocks especially require to be raked down before leaving- them. If the weather has been scorchivr/, the hay often appears quite dry, whilst there is an excess of sap inside ; this arises from the outside becoming dry quickly and keeping the sap in. The best plan in such a case is to allow it to remain two nights and one day in one of the large cocks. This brings it into a regular sweat, and, upon being opened to the sun and air, the hay quickly gives up its moisture, and is ready for being carried. If the precautions already given have been attended to, the hay may be carried so as to come to a good heat in the stack. This heat is essentially necessary to develop the quality of the hay. When the grass is cut in its prime there is more quality in it, and it is disposed to run to greater heat ; hence the making of hay is a matter requiring considerable degree of judgment, buty at the same time, any farmer is amply repaid for giving proper attention to it. The point to be aimed at is to get the stack to a. sufficient degree of heat, but not an excessive heat. The few hints I have given may guide, but experience alone can make any one successful. I have noticed this at some length, because there is so much ha?/ spoilt by bad management, and very little is as good as it might be ; yet it is a most important agricultural product though so often disregarded ; and a greater difference exists between good hay and that which has been badly man- aged, than between the qualities of any other agricultural pro- duce : one sample is bright, supple, and full of quality, whilst another is worth little more than straw. The extent of grass- land in this district may be advanta- geously increased by laying down some of the poorest, steepest^ and most retentive soils. At present they yield scarcely any profit, but if laid down in grass, at any rate the outlay would cease, and under good management they Avould contribute to- the manure of the farm and certainly yield a better return. The conversion into grass-land of some of the inferior tillage- land would be a great boon ; but the tenants generally require help in doing so, because there are many expenses which do not bring any return for three or four years. Such lands should be laid down in grass after a bare fallow. Rape may be sown with it, and this should be drilled early in May, and a good selection of grass seeds sown immediately after. This sacrifice- of the corn crop will be more than compensated by the superior ([uality of the pasturage, but many tenants do not approve ol the sacrifice, and in such a case a wheat crop is taken instead ot the rape. In either case the ground must be well rolled in dry weather before winter to give firmness to the young seeds. Ar/riculhire of Shropshire. 25 Orchards. — There are many orchards in this district, but very few of them produce much cider, nor is the quality good. Tliere is a too-general neglect in pruning the trees for them ever to produce a good crop of apples. Tiie mossy branches indicate a want of air to circulate amongst them and dry them after the falls of moisture they receive. As a rule one half of the wood in the orchards might be removed with great advantage, due care being taken to leave the fruit-bearing wood. Most of tlie orchards here are under grass and fed by sheep and pigs. Con- siderable advantage would result from digging round the trees and giving them some lime or lime compost. In the' manufacture of cider the quality is sadly depreciated by bad management, more especially in allowing the fermentation to proceed too fai*. The cider is not racked soon enoufih after the fermentation commences, and thus the body of tlie cider is wasted. Prompt and frequent racking will check the fermentation, and although it may involve some degree of trouble, this ought not to interfere witli the proper management of cider. It is a very good plan to have a frame (say 18 inches square) covered with horsehair, and some cruslied charcoal spread over it, and then to pass the cider through it. The consequence is, the charcoal lays hold of the fermenting matter which would otherwise go into the fresh barrel, and not only is much trouble saved as regards future rackings, but the strength of the cider is left uninjured. I do not mean that this will supersede the necessity of racking, but it will considerably lessen it. The Management of Live Stock. — Cattle. — This is the dairy district of Shropshire, and as tlio production of butter is the chief consideration, we might have anticipated that little attention would be paid to purity of breed. Such is really the case, for wc find all kinds of cows kept. An inferior description of Here- ford predominates, but we also find Welsh, Lancashire, Long- horns, Sliort-horns, Ayrshires, and Devon cows. Tiie three last are represented by very degenerate specimens. The Herefords are decidedly the best as regards quality, but this chiefly arises from the better and more abundant supply of them from neighbouring districts. There are some few herds of Herefords of good quality, but they are exceedingly rare. It is not tlie rule of this district to have well-bred cows, for they would not suit the re- quirements as well as inferior-bred animals. The cow which will produce most butter at the least cost is the favourite. The great demand from the manufacturing towns around ensures a prompt sale at good prices, and there are many dealers who travel from market to market purchasing all that the farmers send from their dairies, to be conveyed to the manufacturing 26 Agriculture of Shropshire. towns. I doubt whether any more profitable use could be found for the grass-land of this district. It is eminently suited for a dairy district, and the great demand for the produce offers an additional inducement to this branch of husbandry. As regards the dairy management, I have only to say that the quality is good, and the farmers' wives, with that care and economy for which they are characterised, show a considerable degree of skill and good management in carrying out their share of the dairy duties. Nearly all is sold fresh, the demand being so great, and scarcely any made into salt butter. In some remote situations it is done to a small extent, but the intersection of the county by railways has considerably reduced it. The cheese made is of very inferior character, and only suited for the use of the servants and labourers. As I have said before, the cows are inferior in quality, but no doubt as milkers they answer a better purpose than higher- bred cows, and I do not see any sufficient reason for taking up a better-bred class. They calve very irregularly — in fact are dropping their calves all through the year. More are probably calved in the spring ready for the fresh grass than at any other time ; but this does not depend upon any systematic arrange- ment, but rather because farmers in the neighbouring district find a demand for their inferior in-calf heifers when the grass is fiesh. The use of linseed-cake for dairy cows (when the produce is sold as butter) is exceedingly remunerative, and the use of 2 or 3 lbs., or even more, daily, will pay back the cost with considerable profit. It should be commenced gradually, and then decreased as the cow approaches drying. In addition to the dairy stock kept, there is a large number of young cattle reared here. These are the calves purchased with or produced from their cows. Tlie quality of these, as might have been anticipated, is by no means good, still they produce usefid heifers for the dairy. The calves are soon put upon skimmed milk, and although some add to it linseed gruel, this is not general. The early treatment of the calves is by no means calculated to render their growth rapid ; however, by the aid of roots and hay, they gradually become weaned and ready for the grass. During the summer they get a fair supply of grass, and when the autumn comes they are better than would have been expected. Many are taken to the yards and wintered there ; but by far the majority are kept on a dry piece of grass- land all the winter, and supplied with some temporary shedding, where they have turnips with hay or straw. This keeps them very hardy, and with all the disadvantages of not being at the homestead they have certainly the benefit of a vigorous health. Agriculture of Shropshire. 27 These stock are generally calved down when little more than two years old, or else sold, when two-and-a-half years old, to go to better land for fattening. Upon the present system I have two suggestions to make : I would advise better bulls to be kept, and that the store-stock should have better food. With the excellent opportunities here offered for keeping up the supply of dairy cows, the object of the farmer is clearly to produce as good a bullock at two-and-a-half years old as his circumstances will allow. The influence ol a good bull would be great. The cows, as I have said, are of inferior class ; but if these are crossed with a^z-s^-class bull, probably better stock will be produced than from much better cows, and the produce will retain the hardy constitution of the cow with the high feeding character of the bull. A second-raXe bull is not suitable, and its produce will be far inferior to that of a superior animal. All such stock should be allotted to the butcher; tor, however tempting the animal may be — and there will be many really beautiful animals, — a second cross will be a failure. Having thus secured a calf calculated to make a good bullock, give it a more generous system of feeding ; supply it with lin- seed gruel, or mucilage from linseed cake when it loses the new milk for skimmed. Some breeders in oiher counties give to each calf, daily, ^\h. bean-meal, Jib. crushed linseed, and |- lb. mo- lasses, made into broth, and added to the skimmed milk. When the calf is weaned, it should have, in addition to good grass, ^Ib. of linseed-cake daily ; and if this appears to purge, owing to a rapid growth of grass, change the cake for h lb. bean- meal. The same extra food should be continued through the winter, and gradually increased to 1 lb. daily, and this allowance continued until two-and-a-half years old, when we may presume the animal will be sold. This will have added about 3/. per head to the cost, but the increase of value will be from two to three times this sum ; and such stock would be eagerly sought after for fattening, because of their thriving condition and kindly dispo- sition. Not only can this be done with direct profit, but we must remember the benefit resulting from this addition of fertil- ising matter to the farm. It is poor economy to keep any animal intended for the butcher upon the alternate system of thriving and declining. A steady progress will be found most remu- nerative. I must here refer to a valuable herd of Devon cattle kept at Kinlet by the late Mr, Child. These were of very high merit, and excelled any herd in the north of Devon for number and quality combined. Good cows and heifers were selected from West Devon stocks, and these were !bred with first-class bulls. The celebrated Y>vize-hu\\ (Devon Herd-Book, No. 108), 28 Agriculture of Shropshire. from which nearly all the best Devons are descended, Avas purchased by the late Mr. Child, of Kinlet ; and it appears that the stock descended from him in Shropshire were as remarkable for their beautiful symmetry and high feeding character as those which remained behind in Devon, It is a sad loss to the county that the herd Mr. Child brought to so high a degree of perfection should have been scattered at his death in 1824. Great judg- ment was shown in bringing them to excellence, and considerable benefit would have resulted by the continued distribution through this district of stock from tliis valuable breed. They were eminently suited for the locality, being better milkers than the Herefords, equally naturalized to the climate, and more productive of profit than others which have succeeded them. Their place at Kinlet has been occupied by the Ayrshires, and more recently by the Herefords, but neither have been as remunerative as the Devons were. Some of the Highland Scots have been tried on the poor hilly grass-lands with success. These thrive when nothing else will, and, when crossed with a Short-horn bull, breed stock of first- class feeding character and of excellent quality. On the poorest and most exposed tracts there is no class of stock which will pay more money, for they will often more than double their value in one year. I have myself known stock costing 6/. per head worth at the end of the same year 13/. or 14/., and the increase is just as great when they calve down. Sheep.— This is not much of a sheep district, and only a small number are kept. These are frequently inferior Shropshire j^owns, but more generally Welsh ewes. They are generally purchased in the autumn, and lambed down, botli the ewes and the lambs being fattened off after. The district is generally un- sound for sheep, and hence permanent ilocks are seldom kept, Tlie present system is more profitable than a permanent flock would be in this district, even supposing tlie land to be sound for them. Pigs. — These animals are very much neglected in this district, which is surprising, as much of the profit of a dairy farm depends upon their proper management. The majority are coarse and of inferior quality, and they are not kept in sufficient order to be remunerative. As regards coarseness in a pig, this should be confined to the sow. In a breeding sow for a dair;/ farm., a moderate degree of coarseness is rather desirable, and with this we should have a disposition to throw large fari'ows and a good supply of milk : such a sow is sure to be a good breeder and nurse. Tlie boar to be used in this case should be of the very best cjuality — a second-rate is not good enough ; and the progeny will be numerous, hardy in their nature, with a disposition for Agriculture of Shropshire. 29 growth, and an aptitude for fattening-, and will probably be as well formed as the boar. Such stock should be fattened and not reserved for breeding purposes. I do not consider that it would be practicable for the pigs bred on these dairy farms to be fattened there, but I should rather advise the old-fashioned plan of keeping them until they are worth 1/. each and then letting them be sold. Pio-s bred in this manner would meet with an immediate demand. The number bred should not be limited to as many as the whey will keep : it will be found more remunerative to purchase or grow other food for them, and keep a larger stock. Horses. — These are strong and active, and, generally speaking, well built. Many are bred here, and sold when four or five years old in the manufacturing district. This explains, in a great mea- sure, the unusual horse-strength observed on most farms. Four horses all at length in a plough ; five horses in a cart, with per- haps 2 cubic yards of dung ; and long useless teams in the waggons, are of frequent occurrence. But this apparent waste of labour is simply to exercise their horses during times when work is not pressing ; at other times, when despatch is necessary, we find the teams divided and accelerating the work on the farm to an unusual degree. This is of immense advantage in the early summer and autumn, when there is an excessive pressure of work to be done. The breeding of horses is, therefore, well suited to the district ; and when they allow the colts to be four 3'ears old before breaking them in for regular work, they always pay the most money. They may, with advantage, be brought into work when three years old, but the labour should be light ; and after the colt has been worked three or four months it will be desirable to let it run for eight or nine months more, which will add considerably to the value. Good four-year old horses sell for 40/. to 50/. each, according to quality. Implements. — These are generally cumbersome and anti- quated; but few modern implements have come into general use. Howard's iron ploughs, Sanders' and Williams' harrows, together with turnip and corn drills, are met with, and are daily becoming more general. Many use the old wooden ploughs, more from having them and not wishing to purchase new ones than irom any other cause. The cases are very rare of new implements being made on the old plans. New ploughs are generally iron ploughs, which answer uncommonly well and are general favourites. Portable steam threshing-machines are frequent, and most of the corn is threshed in this manner. Carts are seldom used except for such work as drawing dung. They are never used lor harvest work, this being entirely done by waggons. Farm Buildings are generally well and substantially Iniilt. The general plan is a square, with the sheds and other buildings 30 Afjriculture of Shropshire. enclosinor a central yard, which is often divided into two or more straw-yards. Additional open shedding is g-eneraliy wanted, for the present sheds are rather cramped, considering the number whicli are to be wintered ; and consequently many of the young store stock are Avintered on the grass-land, which would be better running in a good straw-yard, and having turnips there. Many of the yards are defective as regards the preservation of the liquid manure, for although it may not be considered desirable to go to much expense in using it upon the land, yet we are committing a far greater error by neglecting it and allowing it to be wasted. The most valuable use for it is to pump it upon the dung-heaps as they are fermenting, and this may be done at little cost, and will be a great improvement to the dung. The waste of liquid manure is not confined to the fold, but is generally observable around the dung-heaps. The Management of Dung generally is too much neglected. It is, however, deeply important to the fertility of a farm, and neglect must sooner or later show itself in the condition of the land. For grass-land or for young clover seeds the dung cannot be too rotten, whilst for the tillage-land it will he better used long and not much fermented. This is easily regulated by the manner in which the dung-heap is made. If it is not required for some time and then wanted in a slightly fermented state, this may be done by compressing the heap as much as possible by driving the carts over it, and then cutting back the ends. If, on the other hand, the dung is wanted to be well rotten, it may be made into a heap liqhthj and turned over. If water is near, so that the heap may be moistened after the turning is finished, it will very much improve and promote the fermentation of the dung. The more rotten the dung is required, the more it must be turned and the entrance of air favoured ; whilst if the fermen- tation is to be checked the air must be kept out as much as possible. Woodlands. — There is a large quantity of land in this district devoted to the growth of underwood. In some cases the land is entirely devoted to its growth, but it is more frequently grown under and amongst plantations of oak. The oak and ash grow very well throughout this district, and there are many woods containing a good stock of thriving timber, especially around Kinlet. Large quantities have been cut and used for ship build- ing, but still much remains. It is very much to be desired that the growth of timber should be restricted to land devoted to its growth, and that its growth in hedges should be discontinued. The growth of trees here is a severe tax upon the tenant, and the landlord does not realize one-tenth of what the tenant loses, though much of this is paid indirectly hy the landlord, so that Agricultwe of Shropshire. 31 after all he is the greatest loser. The value of the woodlands in this part is — with the exception of the bark produced — regulated by the state of the iron trade ; for, as the wood is chiefly disposed of as poles for pit-wood and as cord-wood for charcoal, the demand is necessarily regulated to some degree by the prosperity or depression of this trade. The iron-masters generally purchase the cord-wood and send their own charcoal burners to convert it. Draining. — This has been very generally practised throughout the district, and with much advantage, but there is a large proportion of land which still needs drainage. Various plans have been adopted; about 15 or 16 years since the land was drained with turf and stone drains, from two to three feet, but more recently the tile and pipe drains have been gradually super- seding the more primitive mode. At the same time the depth has been increased to between three and four feet, which is the usual depth. The results from the pipe drainage have been most successful, and the expense has been considerably reduced by their use. Many of the landlords find pipes, and the tenants bury them. This, however, is unsatisfactory, and by far the larger portion of the expense falls upon the tenant, who naturally does it as economically as possible, and hence in too many cases does not do it efficiently. Other proprietors drain the land and charge the occupant 5 or 6 per cent, on the outlay. This is in every way the best plan, for the proprietor makes a permanent improvem.ent and receives a return which not only pays the interest, but after a term of years liquidates the outlay also. District No. II. This may be distinguished as the district of Corve Dale, as it includes and consists chiefly of this far-famed valley. It is en- closed on the west by a range of limestone hills, extending from Easthope in a south-west direction to VVesthope ; on the east it is bounded by the Clee Hills and the rising land of District No. I., and on the south it reaches to the borders of the county. A reference to the map will show it to be a narrow but long slip of land varying in width from 1^^ to 4 miles, and about 20 miles in length, and containing about 35,000 acres. It is a tract of land possessing much interest on account of its fertility and the general appearance of prosperity which distinguishes it. From the interesting ruins of Ludlow Castle a view is obtained of a considerable portion of Corve Dale. It spreads beneath this venerable castle like a carpet of vei'dure of the richest character, and the luxuriance of vegetation at once strikes the beholder with the feelinof that he is viewinsr one of the most fertile of our English vales. o2 Agriculture of Shropshire. The surface is slightly undulating;, just sufficient to give variety to the landscape. The Corve brook runs through the Dale, and is joined by the Ony near Ludlow. The soil is chiefly an alluvial deposit of good quality. Around Ludlovi^ this deposit is 6 or 7 feet deep, and throughout the centre of the Dale, along the course of the Corve, it maintains a depth varying from 2 to 8 feet. The more general depth is 3 or 4 feet. As we rise towards the hills which bound the Dale it gradually decreases in depth. It forms a loamy soil, occasionally becoming a stiff loam, especially in the north portion of the Dale. We also find drifts which are gravelly in their nature, as between Onibury and Ludlow, but these are generally narrow portions of no great extent. The tillage-land is nearly equal in extent to the grass-land, and maintains throughout the district a considerable degree of fertility, and is occupied by a wealthy and prosperous tenantry. Its produce is very much checked by the peculiarity of the climate, which, as I have already stated, is cold and uncongenial, and subject to a succession of ichite frosts late in the spring, Avhich are very unfavourable to vegetation ; hence the averages are considerably below the amount which the land is in every other respect calculated to produce. The course of cropping differs in some degree according to the heaviness of the soil. On Dry Soik. Eoots. Spring corn or wheat. Seeds, one or two years, altev- nating with beans. Wheat. On Heavier Soils. Fallow or vctclies. Wheat. Seeds or beans. Wheat. Falloic. — Although this is occasionally practised on some of the heaviest portions of the Dale, yet it is generally considered unnecessary. A crop of vetches is much more frequently taken, and thus the land gets a bastard fallow instead of a bare fallow. Vetches. — The land is broken up for this crop in tlie early part of the winter, and exposed to the action of the wintry ■weather. There is not, however, sufficient attention given to the autumn cultivation, and valuable time is thus comparatively lost on many farms. It is of the greatest importance that the stubbles should be made as clean as possible before they are ploughed deep for the winter. Tl)is is the time when the couch- grass may he forked out v/ith the least trouble, and, as a rule, I should have this done before the surface is broken. Often the couch is broken or cut by the use of various implements, thus increasing the difficulty of its removal, and encouraging its growth very much, instead of checking it. Forking will, in the majority of cases, be found the cheapest and most effectual Agricidtiire of Shropshire. 33 mode of clearings the land from this, whicli is one of tlie most troublesome of weeds. This being done, the broadshave or paring ploughs will have free and uninterrupted work, and by their aid, with the harrows, the surface should be cleared and the rubbish burnt. This work should be done very shallow, as giving less labour in the dragging. When the surface is clear, and such dung as can be spared applied, the land is ready for the winter's ploughing. VVith such a preparation as this, little will remain to be done in spring, except to give the land a second ploughing, and then it will be ready for being sown with vetches. These are sown from March to May inclusive, and about three bushels of seed used per acre. The crop is almost always consumed on the land by sheep which are fattening. The land is then in excellent condition for being prepared for wheat, for after it has been ploughed and cleaned so far as may be necessary, it will be ready for receiving the seed wheat. Rape is cultivated, but not to any great extent, not so much as its merits would justify ; and the remarks already made on this subject (page 12) are equally applicable to this district. Roots. — Mangold- wurtzel and carrots are grown to a small extent only. Their cultivation may be advantageously increased, as they are very valuable for a change of food. Certainly large stores of these roots are not as much required as when the grass-land is deficient, for, with carefully-cultivated and well-stored sv/edes, there is an ample supply of food up to the time of turning out to grass. As a pleasant change of food, or for cows and ewes after calving and lambing, a moderate supply of the mangold may be desirable, or some carrots for the horses and fatting stock may be very useful, but they must not be looked upon as a standard food. The climate, from being so moist, is decidedly unfavourable to the mangold, and thus the crops are much smaller than those of swedes. This makes them more expensive, and tliey must be used in moderation. Swedes. — ^This is a crop which can be cultivated here with much success. Some good crops are grown, but there is much room for improvement, and they are capable of being very much increased. Autumn cultivation is of much importance for this crop, and affords the best opportunity for cleaning the land at the least expense. The dung is applied in the au- tumn, and ploughed in when the land is laid up for the winter. About twelve cubic yards per acre is the usual quantity. After the ground has been worked in the spring, the guano is sown broadcast on the land, and then it is thrown into ridges ready for the seed. The use of salt with guano is not so general as in District No. I., and might be practised more extensively VOL. XIX. D 34 Agriculture af SItropshire. with advantage. About 2 cwt. of guano and 2 cwt of super- phosphate per acre is the usual allowance. The latter is mixed with ashes, and drilled with the seed. Unlike the first district — where the early or May sowings are preferred — here they are afraid to sow earlier than June. The chief crop is sown in the first and second week of June. An earlier sowing renders them liable to the mildew, to which the crops of the neighbourhood are peculiarly subject. The turnip beetle {Haltica nemorum) is a sad pest, and destroys many acres of roots. Both, however, are in some measure under our control, but especially the latter. The use of a moderate cjuantity of superphosphate, well inter- mixed with some good ashes, and then drilled with double the ordinary quantity of seed, will scarcely ever fail, provided you sow when the soil is dry. If sown whilst moist the seed germi- nates, and when it has advanced thus far the weather often proves dry, and the fly devours the entire crop ; but when the ground is dry, there the seed remains until the rain falls, and a rapid growth ensues which saves the crop. The contrary is the general opinion, but the most successful practice proves it to be wrong. Many have great fear of working the land so as to allow the moisture to escape. This is a frequent cause of failure, because it is during this period of dry weather that the crops are lost. The moisture in the soil is seldom sufficient to do more than start the seed, and consequently, if dry weather sets in immediately after, there is a severe battle with the turnip beetle. I very much prefer the seed not growing until it gets rain, and the soil having previously got warm, upon receiving the rain, almost induces a hot-bed growth. I believe the crop may be made perfectly safe by these three modifications — the use of a stimulating manure, sowing an additional quantity of seed, and by giving a preference to a dry soil rather than a slightly moist one. I have, in some years, sown over 300 acres of turnips, and my experience confirms this practice. The control of mildew is much more difficult, for the best cultivation is most sure of its patronage, and especially when the plant is sown early, and rapidly forced into maturity by artificial manures. For this reason the sowing of a large part of the artificial manure broadcast allows it a slower and firmer growth, which continues later in the autumn. Where the manure is all drilled we have an energetic growth, but as the roots spread from the manure, they cease to find equally nourish- ing food, hence, when much growth has been effiscted, the vigorous development is checked, whereas if the rootlets, as they spread, found fresh stores of food, tlie growth would be pro- longed. As soon as the circulation becomes languid, and the leaves lose their usual vigour, they become liable to the attack Agriculture of Shropshire. 35 of these minute fungi. Hence any plan which stimulates the autumn growth is calculated to retain an energy in the plant which will defend it, in a great measure, from this disease, I have no doubt that the use of some superphospate and guano, thoroughly intermixed with mould, and sown over the crop about the time of the mildew appearing, would stimulate the growth and save the crop. This disease is a great check to the full de- velopment of the swede crop, for every step we take to make the crop superior is one step towards mildew: whether it is heavy manuring or hoeing the plants out so as to give them plenty of room, all tends to render the crop more liable to its attacks. Early maturity and rapid growth are equally unfavourable for keeping roots for any considerable time. The tissues are less firm than in cases of slow growth, and consequently more liable to decay. As the swede is so well suited to this district, and for spring food is preferable to mangolds as a standard crop, for the reasons before named, it becomes very important to be able to grow and store these roots in the best manner. When especially- intended for late spring use, the mode of growth should be modi- fied. They should be drilled with only a small quantity of superphosphate, say 1 cwt. per acre ; not much manure should be ploughed in, and they may be sown in the third week in June. They should not be hoed out above 8 or 9 inches apart, and our endeavour should be to get a crop of moderate-sized roots rather than a heavy crop of large roots. Of course this special mode of cultivation will be only carried out to a limited extent. I have found the ichite swede * well suited for this purpose, as they may be sown in the third or fourth week of June, and keep later in the spring than any other sort. In storing swedes two plans are adopted, accordingly as thev are to be fed on the field or not. In the former case, having marked every 8th or 10th drill and had the swedes in them pulled, a wide furrow is ploughed, into which the ^wedes, as they are pulled, are regularly stacked with their tops up, and after this is done the plough goes round the rows once or twice and earths up the sides. In this state they will remain for a considerable time, and when they are seen to sprout in the spring, if a few ewes and lambs are turned amongst them they will keep thern in check. The great advantage of this plan is the economy of labour in Storing the roots, together with the equal distribution of the roots over the field. When the roots are going to be drawn from the land the usual mode of stacking is adopted. Having selected a dry spot, the first * Sold by Jeffries, seedsmen, of Cirencester. D 2 36 Agriculture of Shropshire. roots are stacked into a heap about 6 or 8 feet wide at the base, and tapering off to nothing at 5 feet high. Care is taken to secure them as dry as possible ; if the weather is fair they will be better for remaining open for a time, but if not sufficiently fine for this, let them be covered with a layer of straw, then u trench must be made around them and the earth cast upon tho heap. The whole may then be thatched down, taking care to place several wisps of straw on the ridge to act as ventilators. For several days after they are stored moisture will be observed at the ends of the heap, which is condensed from the vapour passing off from the roots. The ends should be kept as open as possible to allow of a current of air through the stack, and thus promote the evaporation of the moisture from the fresh roots ; but, of course, frosts must be guarded against. If the stacks are m;ide so as to keep in this moisture, the tendency to decay is very much increased thereby. By far the greater portion of the swedes (say three-fourths) is consumed on the land in the southern portion of this district, but as we proceed northwards and the land becomes heavier, so we find more cattle and fewer sheep kept, and consequently a larger pro- ])ortion is drawn home. As a general rule, when fed on the ground the crops are economically used, and the sheep do very well, the swedes being cut for them and given in troughs. In the spring, just as the days lengthen, they have some oil-cake or corn given to them, and the progress they make is most satisfactory. It is in the spring, when the sun begins to regain power and all nature is prepared to move, that the assistance of artificial food becomes so valuable, for not only will the carcase nearly pay the cost, but the increased value of the fleece will be very evident. Wheat. — This crop is sometimes sown after a fallow, as on the heaviest land ; at other times on a bastard fallow, after vetches or rape, and also after a crop of roots, and on a clover ley. The month of October is the season for sowing, and as much as pos- sible is sown then. The fallows and other clean land are sown broadcast after the land has been well pressed, but on the clover ley, &c., the seed is drilled, and here also the land-presser is used. From 2 bushels to 2i bushels of seed are sown, the " Old Red Wheat " being considered the most productive variety. White wheats are generally objected to for autumn sowing, and whenever they are sown it is in spring. The more delicate character of this wheat renders it less suitable to the climate of the district. The crop depends very much upon the season ; if the spring and early summer has many white frosts (which are so common throughout the Dale) late in the season, the growth is checked, becomes unhealthy, and does not fully recover itself before harvest ; in such seasons the crop will vary from 25 to 30 Afjriculture of Shropshire. 37 bushels, but in a good season from 30 to 36 bushels. The heaviest crops are thus far below what the quality of the land would lead one to expect, for such land in the east of England would produce from 40 to 48 bushels per acre, but this climate is not favourable for wheat. There is a very strong objection against finishing the land off finely when sown with wheat; the object is rather to leave it as rough as possible, — partly because these clods protect the wheat from the cutting winds which rush up the valley, and also because if the soil is left fine it is disposed to run together, and this causes an unhealthy growth. Barley of good quality is grown here, and well liked for malt ; but here also the crop is small, generally varying from 30 to 35 bushels per acre, in dry seasons only reaching to 40 bushels. It is always soAvn after roots fed on the ground. March and April are preferred to an earlier time for sowing ; and the latest sown, if followed by a favourable season, often grows the most luxuriantly. Oats are not grown largely, and are generally put on the worst land, especially on that towards the sides of the Dale rising to the hills. I doubt, however, whether, even on the best ground, oats would not pay better than wheat. So i^w oats are grown in the bottom land that an opinion cannot be confidently ex- pressed ; but I have known it proved in some trials that were made. Much of course depends upon season ; for in a very good season the wheat might flourish, so as to pay the best, Avhilst in a bad season the reverse would probably happen. It is, I believe, worthy of more general trial ; and in such trials I strongly recommend seed direct from Scotland. The produce of such Scotch seed might be again sown, but then fresh seed should be procured. I have found these white oats far more productive than local seed under the same circumstances ; for when my average growth was from 27 to 30 bushels, I have had, in the same season, from 37 to 40 bushels, and the o\A\ difference was in the seed. The oat is much more hardy than wheat, and more naturalised to moist climates ; thus, where the wheat cannot grow, the oat will flourish luxuriantly. Of all corn crops this is the least liable to failure, and under im- proved management promises to be far more profitable than at the present time. Beans and Peas are not largely grown. Wiien the land is tired of clover, these are substituted : but they are most un- certain crops, and are more subject to blight than even in District No. I. : their cultivation therefore leads to many disappoint- ments. Seeds. — The remarks already made, Avhen noticing District No. I. (p. 18), are equally applicable to this district. The facts 38 Agriculture of Shropshire. are the same in both, and the comments apply with equal force to both ; repetition is therefore unnecessary. Grass-Land. — This is tlie stronghold of the Corve Dale farmer ; without his grass-land his occupation would be only of small value, but with this he holds a sure source of remuneration. In fact, the prosperity of the farmers of this district depends lar more upon their grass than their tillage land. There are probably 20,000 acres under grass in this district, and it is throughout rich grazing land. I must here again refer the reader to District No. I. (p. 20) for many remarks on this subject, which are equally important for this part. I must however draw attention to the importance of giving a preference to grass rather than tillage. It is clear that many difficulties are con- nected with the growth of corn. The average produce of corn is small, whilst the growth of grass is abundant and of excellent quality. Nature favours the one, but checks the other. Need we then be surprised that the profits should come from the pro- duce of grass-land ? It teaches one important lesson, viz., that the decrease of the tillage and the increase of the grazing land will be attended with more profit. A certain portion must necessarily be kept under the plough for the supply of food and litter for winter use; but if this were the only object in view, there would be a considerable decrease in the extent of tillage land. Let it be remembered which pays most profit, and much will go under turf again, and pay far better than it does at the present time under the plough. The expenditure of the farm is mainly upon the tillage land, whilst the return is chiefly from the grass. Live Stock. — Qitt/e. — The Hereford cattle are found here in the highest perfection, and very few other breeds are met with in the district. Occasionally a Welsh cow or two may be kept for supplying the house with milk, but the calves are invariably sold or fattened for the butcher as soon as possible. To mention the herds of such men as Mr. Lloyd Roberts of Colton Hall, Mr, Dawes of Elsidge, Mr. Evan Davis of Patten, Mr. Power of Cofton, Mr. Blockley of Tugford, Mr. Parsons of Tugford, Mr. Blockley of Broadstone, Mr. Instone of Bourton, Mr. Bac he of New House, Cofton, is at once evidence of quality of the liighest character to any one acquainted with this part of the country. It may be said that the entire district stands unrivalled for the number and quality of Herefords upon the same extent of land. The system generally adopted is quite in accordance with the excellence of the breed, for the production of a fine bullock is the point constantly aimed at. The cows calve during the months of November, December, January, and February, and the calves are suckled by their own dams. Milk is not the Agriculture of Shropshire. 39 object here, and the calves get their full share, nothing but an excess of milk being ever drawn off. The consequence is, that when May comes, and the grass is ready, the calves are also ready to be weaned ; and, having had this good preparation, they thrive on the grass when they are turned out. Shelter and proper care are given to the calves until they are accustomed to the change. The cows, when dry, are turned away to summer on the poorer pastures towards the hills ; but if they are not in calf, they are turned upon rich grazing land to fatten. Much of the land will fatten a 45 or 50 score bullock per acre, besides two or three sheep. The calves are summered on good grass-land, and wintered on hay and turnips, and are kept very well from the time of birth until sold to the butcher. Any heifers which may be reserved for breeding purposes are not kept so well the second summer, but, in common with the other stock, they are kept improving, although not so rapidly. Some few farmers sell their stock when two years old ; they are then worth on an average 18/. or 20/. each ; but the majority keep them well through the following winter, and sell them in the spring, when they fetch from 20/. to 24/. Some keep them until three years old, and then they turn out beautiful beasts, worth 25/. to 30/. A large proportion of the summer-grazing bullocks are sold at Ludlow Fair (September 28th), where may be seen a collection of beef which, for quality and quantity, will rival any fair in the kingdom. There farmers may be seen selling perhaps 20 fat cows each, the culls of their herds, at 25/. to 30/. a piece, besides fat steers. Some extraordinarily fine animals have been reared in this part of Shropshire by crossing Hereford cows with a Short-horn bull, thus giving greater weight and disposition for fattening ; but it is not extensively done, for the subsequent produce from this cross-bred stock very rapidly fails in quality, and yields inferior stock. The chief inducement to cross the blood appears to be from the fact that the Herefords have been " casting" their calves very much of late years, and the use of a bull of another breed has been found to lessen the loss very considerably. This pro- bably arises from a greater degree of vigour in the embryo than when the same strain of blood is used. The Herefords, in common with all other improved breeds of cattle, have, by following too closely the same line of descent, become enfeebled as breeding animals, and it is observed that the same circumstances which produce abortion in a well-bred Here- ford cow are without effect upon an inferior animal. It is however very singular, that when this enfeebled condition of the breeding powers exists both in a Short-horn and Hereford, although this weakness would produce bad results if they were bred on in 4.0 Agriculture of Shropshire, the same line, jet when crossed with each other the weakness is overcome, and a vigorous produce is the result. If, as 1 believe, a close kindred of blood renders the Herefords of this district susceptible of this influence, it is clear that the introduction of fresh blood will render them less so. This, however, is not the cause, for we must draw a line of distinction between the cause which operates, and that peculiar state of the system which renders an animal predisposed to, or susceptible of this preju- dicial influence. We may have two cows in the same field, and in every respect under the same treatment, the one a well-bred Hereford, and the other an inferior Welsh cow ; the former casts her calf, but the latter is not influenced in the same way. The same cause has operated on both, but whilst the one has not energy to withstand or tinow off the irritating agent, the other is able to do so, and thereby escapes its influence. One of the most frequent causes of abortion is the diseased herbage of our meadows. This is especially the case with rye- grass, which, when it has run to seed, and is subsequently ex- posed to a moist climate, developes a fungus possessing very similar action to the ergot of rye, though in a much milder form. Professor Buckman, in his account of the Natural History of British Grasses,* states that he has gathered ergot from almost every species of grass, but the rye-grass is especially liable to this disease. In order that the reader may be able to recognise its appearance, the accompanying Plate is extracted from the above-named article. (See p. 41.) The great extent to which this evil has extended demands the serious attention of all connected with this district. Tiie losses have been most serious throughout the neighbourhood. I know one breeder who lost 1200/. in three years from this disease. The land which has been most productive of abortion is that portion which has been grazed ; for here the rye-grass has had the opportunity of running to seed, and from this seed the ergot is afterwards produced. It is clear, therefore, that one way to avoid the evil is to remove in-calf heifers and cows from such fields as soon as the hay is carried from the mowing-ground, and keep them on the after-grass, which would probably be (juite free from the exciting cause. I may say th.at, as a rule, animals of inferior quality are held in very low estimation throughout this district, and when ani- mals are grazed which are not bred upon the farm, those of good quality are alone purchased. No doubt this results from the Herefords being such good feeders and grazing so readil}-. Occasionally we have the Hereford bullocks broken for work, * Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xv. p. 477. Agriculture of Shropshire. 41 but the instances are rare. The object of the breeder is to pro- duce beef and not labour animals. The large number of horses Description of the I'latr. d Ergot of Rye , a Ergot iu the chaff-scales. „ h Section of ergot surmounted by the pistils, thus showing it „ to bo a diseased grain. ,, r. Transverse section of the same. Rye-C!rass , . . d Bearing several grains of ergot of different sizes. kept here renders the employment of bullocks unnecessary, and hence the custom of not working them is no doubt quite correct for this part of the country. Sheep. — If this district deserves a high degree of credit for its 42 Agriculture of Shropshire. cattle, such reputation is equally merited by the flocks. Many first-class breeders of Shropshire Down sheep reside in Corve Dale. As the origin of this breed is at the present time a dis- puted question, I feel bound to refer to it. There are many who claim for the Shropshire Down sheep the position of being a jmre original breed ; others, whilst acknowledging their high value cannot allow them to be a pure breed. For my own part I do not consider them a pure breed, but a cross-bred animal from the original Longmynd or old Shropshire sheep. Plymley, in his ' General View of the Agriculture of Sliropshire,'* published in 1803, says: "There is a breed of sheep on the Longmynd with horns and black faces, that seems an indigenous sort ; they are nimble, hardy, and weigh near 10 lbs. per quarter when fatted. Their fleeces upon an average may weigh 2^ lbs., of which ^ lb. will be the breechens or coarse wool, and is sold distinct from the rest. The farmers of the hill country seem to think the greatest advantage they derive from the access of foreign stock is from the cross of the South Down, with the Longmynd sheep ; the produce they state to be as hardy and to bite as close as the Longmynd sheep, and the weiglit of the carcase is increased." It is therefore evident, that between fifty and sixty years since this cross of the South Down and the Longmynd sheep was a favourite. That this practice continued cannot be doubted, for it is well known that first-class flocks of pure South Doicns were kept in Corve Dale, and annual ram sales were held for very many years until they were gradually super- seded by the improved Shropshire Down. Up to the present time South Down rams from the best breeders still find their way from the east of England to the county of Shropshire. Even those flock-masters who claim to be holders of the original breed cannot give proof of purity of blood for twenty-five or thirty years. It does however appear to me to be very unimportant, for if not an original breed, it is very certain they are an established breed, and that their character and peculiarities can be perpetuated most satisfactorily. In fact the rapidity with which this breed has risen into favour is very strong evidence of the general es- timation in which it is held. Only a few years since any men- tion of the Shropshire Down sheep raised an inquiry even amongst intelligent agriculturists as to their character, and few, comparatively speaking, knew anything of them ; now they stand high as general favourites, and they are rapidly extending throughout this and foreign countries. It is almost superfluous to describe the character of this sheep, as it is so well known ; but I may briefly state, that the Shropshire Down sheep combines the * Page 260. Agriculture of Shropshire. 43 symmetry and quality of tlie South Down with the weig^ht of the Cotswold ; it possesses the fattening tendency of the Leicester without its delicate constitution; but this disposition to fat is combined with such a development of the muscles of the body, that a beautifully marbled meat is produced, which can go on any table in the kingdom, and especially amongst the higher classes of society, where the excessive fatness of the Leicester mutton is objectionable. The price of this mutton is as high as any in the market, and when this is said of sheep ranging from 35 lbs. to 40 lbs. per quarter, and carrying fleeces of the best quality from 6 lbs. to 12 lbs. in weight, it must be admitted that such a breed is indeed of very high value. Throughout this district the Shropshire Downs are generally kept pure, being considered more useful than any cross-bred animal. A cross from the Leicester gives a greater tendency to fat and a more delicate constitution, less able therefore to withstand the influence of wet and cold. A decreased energy of system results therefrom, and the animal not only does not progress during inclement weather, but is more susceptible oi disease. The tendency to produce fat when unaccompanied by a proportionate development of muscle is not desirable with the Shropshire Down, for they now excel all other downs in this valuable point to the connoisseur, by having a well-formed muscular system, giving plenty of lean, and yet interlaid with a moderate proportion of fat. For these reasons, the introduction of Leicester blood is strongly objected to. The Cotswold blood has been tried, but it has not been received with more favour. Scarcely any increase of weight has been gained, but the quality of the Down mutton has deteriorated, and hence more harm has resulted than good. With ordinarily liberal feed the Shropshire hoggets will weigh 20 lbs. per quarter at twelve months old, and at twenty months old they will very often average 35 lbs. per quarter through the lot. For the last three years good hoggets, sold in May, have fetched, with fair management, 41,s. to 46^., besides cutting 6 lbs. or 7 lbs. of wool each. There is therefore no great advantage to be gained by the increase of weight, and even if there had been, there must be some very strong reason to induce flock-masters to sacrifice the point of quality, which is so jealously guarded in the Down sheep. In the northern portion of the district the Hocks are not per- manent, because of the unsoundness of the land. The usual custom here is to purchase Welsh ewes in the autumn, cross them with Leicester rams, and fatten both ewes and lambs. The Welsh ewes have very much improved within a few years, and really useful flocks are now driven into and through this county, from districts whence we only used to have stock of very inferior 44 AffricuUure of Shropshue. quality. The ewes driven over this autumn (1857) sold at 2 As. to 345. each. Horses. — The same system is adopted here which I have de- scribed as being practised in District No. I., but the horses bred here are larger and better, probably arising from the better pas- turage. These horses are very hardy, and the breeders arc always desirous of giving them a strong constitution. Horses which are in regular work are kept out at night as long as pos- sible, generally up to December, whilst the younger horses are not taken up until January. A dry piece of grass-land is selected ior them, and some hay is given them in racks in the field. When taken into the yards, they scarcely feel the change to dry food. Some do not take them up at all, especially if there is a sheltering-place in the field. OrcJiards. — There is but a small extent under orchard, for, although the blossom may promise very luxuriant crops, yet the white frosts injure the productiveness of the trees so much as to check any extensive growth of apples. Most of the apples are crushed by portable steam-machines, which travel tlie district ; and these, with small power, gi-ind !20 hogsheads a-day. This is afterwards pressed by hand. There is much opportunity for im- proving the cider made here: it has the general fault of being over-worked. Its body is destroyed by long fermentation, and hence it is not half as good as if the fermentation had been properly held under control, as I have already pointed out. The orchards are generally broken and regularly cropped with roots and corn, followed by seeds for one or two years, after which they are broken again for wheat. It is found much better to cultivate orchards in this district, though in l^istrict No. I. it is just the reverse. Draininf/ has been very generally done where it has been found necessary : but there still remains much land which would be greatly improved by it, especially in rendering it more healthy for sheep and cattle. Much has been done with stone drains in the neighbourhood of the gravel drifts before referred to. The working of these soils always brings a large quantity of stone to. tlie surface, which is used for drains, roads, &c. They must not be taken to any great distance, or the expense of carriage exceeds the cost of pipes. By far the greater proportion is done with jnpes, without any stones, and they are generally laid three or four feet deep. The northern parts of the Dale have a soil which requires the aid of some artificial drainage, but it gradually gets drier as we proceed southwards. As we ascend the sides of tlie Dale we find alternating beds of clay and gravel, and here the drains are more wanted than in any other parts. In the majority of cases, by running a deep drain transversely to the slope of the Jigriculture of Shropshire. 45 hill, so as to intercept the water just before it crops out, a large breadth will be laid dry. Farvi Buildings. — The residences and homesteads throughout this district are generally good and. convenient, and adapted for the highly respectable class of men who occupy them. The square is here generally adhered to. With few exceptions, they are substantially built, and afford, ample accommodation for the requirements of their respective farms. The system of straw-yards with open shedding is general. As there is a large fall of rain in this district, it is desirable to prevent as much as possible injury arising therefrom. The drainage from the yard should be carefully economized ; the buildings properly spouted, and the water conveyed away from the dung. The area receiving rain is thus very much decreased, but this desirable object is very generally ne2:lected. The Fences are generally kept in fair condition, but the ditches require more attention in the early part of the autumn, before the land gets soaked by an impeded drainage. The fields are gene- rally of convenient size. Although this district is not burthened with the us7ial proportion of hedge-row timber, still even hero there is decidedly too much. The growth of timber upon land of this quality is a perpetual loss both to landlord and tenant. Timber should be grown upon land solely appropriated to its growth. Tenure of Land.- — ^ Most farms are held under agreements for yearly tenancies, and are restricted as to the course of cul- tivation and the sale of some of the farm produce, such as fodder, dung, &c. On many estates a regular register is kept, showing the crops and management of every field, and this en- ables the ag:ent to know in some de2:ree how the land is beins: managed, and if fairly dealt with. It is certainly a good plan, and no farmer who is managing his farm well need object to it. The question of security naturally arises, and although instances are exceedingly rare of tenants being ejected from their farms, yet to the prudent calculator it is but a fair subject of inquiry. Landlords have many and just objections to grant leases, and. there is no doubt that a had lease is very hard upon one party or another. The two years' notice, with restriction as to exces- sive cultivation after notice has been given, appears to me (when combined with a fair scale of allowances) to give the requisite security for all true tenants' improvements. If, however, the tenant has to make permanent improvements, this is exceptional, and must be specially stipulated for. The warmest feeling of confidence exists between the landlords and tenantry of this dis- trict, and long may it continue. 46 Apri culture of Shropshire. District No, III. This is by far the most important of the districts into which I have divided the county. It preserves throughout points of character which render any subdivision of it unnecessary and undesirable. The south portion of this district is dotted over witli a number of hills, such as Hopton Hill, Caer-Caradoc, and many others, which give a great boldness of character to the scenery, and render the land exceedingly irregular and uneven : level ground can scarcely be seen, except along the base of the A'alleys, which twine amongst the numerous liills. The soil is generally light, often quite sand}', at other times thin, and near the rock ; most of it is poor, and of inferior quality, but along the valleys there is land of good quality. This portion of the district is bounded on the west by the Welsh hills, and on the east by the hills which prolong the Wenlock Edge. From amongst these also many vallevs run into the district, and by their superior quality add much to its general fertility. Proceeding northwards, but still keeping near the Welsh borders, we find in the neighbourhood of Middleton, Wilmington, and Shelve, an inferior yellowish clay soil, yielding only a poor pasturage, but still more unprofitable as tillage land. Around Church Stretton we come again on land of superior quality, and the whole of the valley in which this town is situated is dis- tinguished by the good quality of its pasture land : in the neigh- bourhood of Woolstaston, Cardington, and around the base of the Lawley Hill, gravelly loams are found occasionally intermixed with sand and clay. At Shrewsbury we find some land of first-class quality, vary- ing from strong rich loams, to sandy loams of inferior value. Here we meet the river Severn, a river second only to the Tliames for importance and length ; it is navigable through- out the entire length (above 60 miles) of its passage through the county, and adds not only to its commercial wealth, but also to its agricultural prosperity. Along the banks we have some beautiful meadows, but the floods to which they are liable very much reduce their value. It is a great loss to the proprietors that they cannot unite for securing the embankments of this river, as has already been done in other cases. Pro- ceeding northwards towards Oswestry we meet with extensive tracts of deep loamy soil, but occasionally Ave find gravels lying amongst them ; the latter, however, are not of much extent ; marl is often met with in this part. In the neighbourhood of Aston, and between this place and Sandford, peaty land exists, but this Agriculture of Shropshii-e. 47 has been made useful by drainage ; between this and Ellesmere these peats are frequent. At Ellesmere we liave a lovely district, with a scenery of almost unparalleled beauty for the midland counties. The extensive lakes, with the rich and varied foliage around them, impart to it the highest degree of romantic beaut}\ Turning from the ornamental to the useful, we may retrace our steps to the plain of Salop, commonly called the Shrewsbury Land, and this occupies the northern and eastern portion of the county as far south as Coal brook-dale. Here is, indeed a rich tract of beautiful tillage land, dr}' and of good quality, and adapted for the production of any description of crop or stock. The surface is a continued succession of gently sloping land, occasionally interrupted by the bold protrusion of rocks, which, with their ragged outlines, give quite an interesting character to the luxuriant vegetation around their bases. Of these the Wrekin is the most important : it rises very abruptly from a comparatively level part of the county to the height of about 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and although not so high as some of the hills near Oswestry, yet from its peculiar situation it is by far the grandest of the Shropshire hills, giving rise to the old Salopian toast, " All friends round the Wrekin." Around the neighbourhood of Hawkstone it becomes almost exclusively a dairy district, and is generally held in small farms, of which the greatest part is grass ; there is a fair proportion of grass-land of good quality near the Tern and Strine, also near the Cherrington and Lee Brooks. Between Much Wenlock, Sutton, Maddock, and Shiffhal, there is a strong loamy soil upon a marly-clay subsoil. At Kinnersley we meet with a peaty soil, which is frequently found here, although not usually in such large quantities as near the above- named place. The appearance of these boggy soils needs some explanation, occurring as they do with such frequency in various parts of this district. I attribute their formation to springs rising from the red-sandstone rock, and carrying up a quantity of iron dissolved in the water : as soon as this ferruginous water comes to the surface and is exposed to the action of the atmo- spheric air, we get a deposit of iron thrown down which amal- gamates the particles of the sand contiguous to it, and the result is that a conglomerate mass is produced. This thickens so long as the causes continue to operate, and also extends its dimensions according to the strength of the spring. The result is a moor-pan, generally from four to eight inches beneath the surface ; this acts like a basin, and as a natural sequel we find the moist soil resting upon this pan producing aquatic plants and mosses, which after many years produce a bog or 48 Agriculture of Shropshire. moss. All that is necessary to lay any of these bogs dry is to break an aperture in the side or bottom of this natural basin, and an outlet for the water is immediately made. Here, then, we see the cause and the remedy for the frequent bogs which are met with upon the red-sandstone formation. Southwards of the Une between Broseley and Ryton we find an extraordinary variety of soil, for, although the entire district is remarka!)le for rapid transition fiom the extremes of sand and clay to all the inteimediate soils, yet here it is more particularly so. Fields are very often met with containing two or three totally different soils, and furnishing a good apology for crooked fences by the remarkably correct manner in which dry and wet land have been separated from each other. I have seen instances of dry land suitable for sheep rendered unfit for them by throwing down fences and the addition of unsound land : here tlien is fair cause for cautitm. The land around Bridgnorth is exceedingly good, as also at Chctton and Earlington. As we pass from hence towards Quattford we have jSIr. Whitmore's beautiful Seven Meadows below us, and after passing the rich alluvial deposit of the Severn valley we come upon a strong red loamy soil, which occasionally becomes rather more sandy in its nature. From here to the border of the county the bold and beautiful scenery will charm the tourist, whose patience and pedestrian powers have enabled him to perambulate this interesting district. Having taken the reader through it with as much rapidity as possible, I must proceed to report by what means it is turned to the practical advantage of its occupants. Tliis is a thorough sheep-farmivrj district, showing the extremes both of good and bad management. The general system of working the land is on the four or five years' course : oi roots, sprinq corn, seeds for one or two years, and icheat. It is sometimes varied where we get heavier spots of land, but this is the general course of cropping. In many cases the rotation is modi- fied thus : Green crop followed by roots, spring corn, peas or ])nlse, wheat ; and as this offers fuller scope for observation, I shall follow this sequence. Green Crops before roots are only grown on the best and warmest land, and by those energetic farmers amongst us who lose no opportunity of making their farms as productive as possible. The corn stubble having been broadshared and cleaned receives a coating of dung. In disposing of this dung the vetches have the prior claim, and generally take the lion's share. We endeavour, as far as we can, to give the ground seven or eight cubic yards of dung per acre, which being ploughed in we com- mence our sowings of vetches, dividing the entire breadth into Agriculture of Shropshire. 49 five or six sowings. The seed is drilled at the rate of three bushels per acre, and the sowings extend through October and November. Where no dung is used the succession of the sowings is not delayed so long, for land with dung will be quite two weeks sooner ready for feeding. Amongst the early sowing it is very common to intermix some oats or rye, to give the vetches an earlier start in the spring. A good crop of vetches often leaves the ground very puffy and loose, so much so as to be unfavourable to the growth of roots ; and I have seen great advantage resulting from the ground being thoroughly rolled and compressed before the roots are sown. Tri folium. — The French or crimson clover has been tried with success, but its culture has not been extensive. Many failures have arisen in its growth from giving the land too much prepara- tion. It is by far the best plan to sov/ 15 or 18 lbs. of the clean seed on a clean stubble without any preparation, harrow it very lightly, and then roll it as firm as possible. It gives valuable fodder, and its growth should be extended. Bge is sometimes grown for very early feed for ewes and lambs, and for such it certainly is very useful indeed, being the earliest of our spring crops and consequently welcomed by our shepherds. Saintfoin is grown in the south-west portion of this district, and where a calcareous soil exists it answers very well. Although useful as a spring food it is not here that its value ends, for, as the crop remains for two and sometimes three years, it in a great degree takes the place of the clover plant, and especially where the latter is found to fail. Lucerne. — This is a crop which is very much neglected, but deserving of greater attention and more frequent cultivation. It is especially suited to soils which contain lime, and will not flourish when this is absent from the soil. Its natural district is therefore on the soils formed from the limestone rocks, but still it is capable of remunerative growth where the supply of lime is near and cheap. The suitability of the soil is a great element of success, and must not be overlooked. The preparation of the land should be deep, and if it follows a well-cultivated root crop this will be sufficient. After the roots are removed or consumed the land should be laid up rough for the winter, and being broken down and well worked in the spring the seed may be drilled in April about 9 inches wide. From 12 to 16 lbs. of good seed should be allowed to each acre to insure a thick plant. It will last for several years, and may be mown three or some- times four times a year. Every autumn it should have a dressing of short dung, which will nourish and protect the plant. When the plant shows a tendency to weakness, fold sheep upon it ; and VOL. XIX. E 50 Agriculture of SUropsIdre. if the last growth is fed on the land it will materially strengthen the plant. Especial care must be taken to cut the crop when coming into bloom, for nothing tends more to wear out the plant than allowing it to get too forward. Italian Rye Grass is another of our valuable but much-neglected fodder crops. This will be suitable when the soil does not admit of the growth of lucerne. To the sheep-breeders of this district this has been most valuable wherever it has been grown, and 1 am glad to say its growth is extending rapidly. The land may be laid down with this, as in the case of ordinary seeds, with a corn crop, but the subsequent growth is very much better if sown without corn. About three bushels of seed is the usual quantity sown per acre. If there is any sloping field below and near the liomestead over which the liquid manure can be carried at a small expense, on such a spot the Italian rye grass will answer well. It is not particular as to soil, but it needs good tillage in preparation : then the liquid manure will contribute much to its luxuriance. Being near the buildings is also desirable, as it should be cut and carried from the ground, and the ground watered immediately after, so that the irrigation may follow the scythe quickly. Rape is also grown as a spring crop, but it is not a general favourite, being considered apt to scour the sheep from its juicy nature. In the autumn, however, this is very different, as it then yields firm and strong food. The objection to it as a food in spring is no doubt owing to the growth being made whilst there is an abundance of moisture, and when the climate is dry this objection does not apply. My own experience leads me to believe that this objection may be very much overcome by alter- ing the cultivation in the following manner. Instead of sowing as is usual in August and September, let the seed be sown in the early part of July, and the crop properly hoed out. We thus get a crop of autumn rape, which being fed off remains and shoots out beautifully for the spring, but being produced from older roots it is firmer and less juicy in its nature. If the rape is wanted solely for autumn use an earlier sowing is desirable. Root Crops. — Mangold- Wurtzel. — The land appropriated for this crop is not sown with a green crop, but its cultivation is advanced so as to prepare for early sowing. Clearing the surface is the first step, and as this land is very subject to couch- grass the first attention is given to it. Many broadshare their stubbles regardless of its existence, and thus rather add to their troubles, as cutting into smaller pieces has the tendency to increase rather than diminish the growth of this weed. If, therefore, there is couch in a field, before anything else is done this should be destroyed. Forking and picking are Agriculture of Shropshire. 51 beyond question the cheapest and most effectual mode, and if done immediately after harvest we take the plant at its weakest time, and when its appearance amono;st the stubble is most readily noticed. Some who are scrupulous respecting the value of vegetable matter hesitate about burning it, and prefer putting it in heaps and rotting it, whereby much is again distributed over the ground. To so great a pest no quarter should be given, nor should we be satisfied that it will not cause more trouble until we see its ashes. The land being cleaned of the couch-grass and its kindred — for it has the black-grass and other near relatives in different neighbourhoods — the surface may be cleared off by the broadshare and harrows, and the weeds thus collected burnt and spread upon the ground. Some may consider it a loss to adopt this mode : a slight and very temporary organic loss does occur, but it is incomparably the least loss of the two. We are not half careful enough against the re-distribution of weeds. We often take great care in gathering, and making into a rotten mass, and then spreading again over the land much that is destined to give us future trouble. This is especially the case with farmyard dung, into which the seeds of weeds are allowed to pass in the assurance of their destruction during the rotting of the dung. It is forming far too low an estimate of the vitality of seeds to think so ; and there are few farmers, if any, who are not adding foul manure to the land, which is to give them trouble at some future time. It is far better effectually to destroy such matter by burning than, from any false notions of economy, to perpetuate these troublesome trespassers. The next step is the breaking of the land ; and the most suc- cessful growers of mangold-wurtzel always double-plough their land, by allowing one plough to follow on the track of the pre- ceding, whereby they gain a furrow of 12 or 15 inches deep, and thus it lies for tlie winter. Early in the spring it is again ploughed 8 inches deep, and is then thrown into ridges 27 inches wide, between which dung is spread at the rate of about 12 to 16 yards per acre. Tlie artificial manure used is generally drilled with the seed, but I very much prefer sowing the guano broadcast before the ridges are split upon the dung. The usual allowance of artificial manure is, guano 2 cwt., and superphos- phate of lime 2 cwt , mixed with ashes, so as to make 25 or 30 bushels per acre for drilling. The quantity of artificial manure may be often increased with considerable advantage ; for it should be remembered that, whilst the general tillage expenses remain the same, whether we have a large crop or a small one, yet it frequently happens that, by a more liberal dose of the artificial manure, we make a very great increase in our crop E 2 52 Agriculture of Shropshire. without much additional outlay. I would, therefore, suggest the increased use of artificial manures for root crops, as beings the most effectual mode of increasing the produce (over and above the usual yield), and thus well repaying the cost of this addi- tional allowance. The Globe is the sort generally grown, being considered a surer cropper than the Long variety : but where a good prepara- tion is made the Long Red will be found to produce the heaviest crops. The Globe no doubt answers best under a rougher mode of management. They are gathered and stored in caves, as already described for roots (p, 35). The cultivation of this root is of unusual importance in this district, because of the scarcity of grass-land on many of the farms. In such cases, if the breadth in clover is increased, the produce of corn is neces- sarily diminished ; or if the clover is fed, then there is a difficulty, because of the hay being required. The mangold, therefore, l)ecomes peculiarly valuable, as affording a supply of food up to the end of June, or even July, and thus enabling us to keep ofF the clovers, and secure our crop of hay. I have known temporary/ vards to be made for carrying out the consumption of the man- golds, so as to give the stock kept in yards during the early summer months plenty of room for exercise and shelter. This being pre-arranged, the mangolds are drawn so as to be in a convenient situation for supplying the stock. Sicedes. — This is the standard root-crop of this part, and even better suited to the climate than the mangolds. They are often grown after a crop of early green food, such as rye, or rye and vetches ; but far more generally without any such predecessor. The cleaning, ridging, and manuring of the ground is the same as that already described for mangolds. The width is not generally as great between the rows. Few persons take sufficient trouble in mixing the manures to be drilled. It is far from being a loss of labour to have the manure, aslies, &c., thoroughly mixed together, and sifted over ticice. Tliis favours its subdivision and distribution, and consequently increases its utility. On the heavy portions of this district there is a general clearance of the crop from the land ; and there are few farms even in dry districts which have not one or more fields each year requiring the crop to be drawn off. When this has to be done, there is nothing like a concentration of strength, so as to clear the land before any change of weather shall interrupt the work, because this is generally followed by such a treading of the land as completely to destroy the effect of all the summer operations. It is scarcely necessary for me to say, that upon such fields swedes are generally grown, because, as the crop has to be drawn, these are most useful at the homestead. Agriculture of Shropshire. 53 Carrots ^re grown freely over the district, but are simply looked upon as an occasional crop, and valued more as suited fur horses or any choice fatting stock, sheep especially, as a change of food, than for any other reason. They are fickle in their growth and